LE MANIFESTE DU PARTI COMMUNISTE
Un spectre hante l'Europe - le spectre du communisme. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies. Toutes les puissances de la vieille Europe sont entrés dans une sainte alliance pour exorciser ce spectre: le pape et le tsar, Metternich et Guizot, les radicaux français et allemand de la police-espions.
Where is the party in opposition that has not been decried as communistic by its opponents in power? Où est le parti d'opposition qui n'a pas été décrié comme communiste par ses adversaires au pouvoir? Where is the opposition that has not hurled back the branding reproach of communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries? Où est l'opposition qui n'a pas lancé de retour l'épithète infamante de communiste, contre les partis d'opposition les plus avancés, ainsi que contre ses adversaires réactionnaires?
Two things result from this fact: Deux choses résultent de ce fait:
I. Communism is already acknowledged by all European powers to be itself a power. Communisme est déjà reconnu par toutes les puissances européennes à être lui-même un pouvoir.
II. II. It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the spectre of communism with a manifesto of the party itself. Il est grand temps que les communistes exposent, à la face du monde entier, publier leurs opinions, leurs buts, leurs tendances, et répondre à ce conte pour enfants du spectre du communisme avec un manifeste du parti lui-même.
To this end, Communists of various nationalities have assembled in London and sketched the following manifesto, to be published in the English, French, German, Italian, Flemish and Danish languages. À cette fin, communistes de diverses nationalités se sont réunis à Londres et esquissé le manifeste suivant, qui sera publié dans les langues française, anglaise, allemande, italienne, flamande et danois.
I -- BOURGEOIS AND PROLETARIANS [1] I - Bourgeois et prolétaires [1]
The history of all hitherto existing society [2] is the history of class struggles. L'histoire de toute société jusqu'à nos jours [2] est l'histoire de luttes de classes.
Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-master [3] and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. Homme libre et esclave, patricien et plébéien, baron et serf, maître [3] et compagnon, en un mot oppresseurs et opprimés, en opposition constante à un autre, mené une guerre ininterrompue, tantôt cachée, de la lutte désormais ouverte, un combat que chaque fois terminée, soit par une transformation révolutionnaire de la société au sens large, ou dans la ruine commune des classes en lutte.
In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. Dans les époques antérieures de l'histoire, nous trouvons presque partout une organisation compliquée de la société en différents ordres, une gradation multiples de rang social. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations. Dans la Rome antique, nous trouvons des patriciens, des chevaliers, plébéiens, des esclaves; au Moyen Age, les seigneurs, des vassaux, maîtres de corporation, des compagnons, des serfs; dans presque toutes ces classes, à nouveau, des gradations subordonné.
The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. La société bourgeoise moderne qui a poussé sur les ruines de la société féodale n'a pas aboli les antagonismes de classe. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Elle n'a fait que de nouvelles classes, de nouvelles conditions d'oppression, de nouvelles formes de lutte à la place des anciens.
Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Notre époque, l'époque de la bourgeoisie, possède, cependant, cette particularité: elle a simplifié les antagonismes de classe. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other -- bourgeoisie and proletariat. La société dans son ensemble est de plus en plus de scission en deux vastes camps ennemis, en deux grandes classes diamétralement opposées - bourgeoisie et le prolétariat.
From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the chartered burghers of the earliest towns. Des serfs du Moyen Age naquirent les bourgeois des premières villes. From these burgesses the first elements of the bourgeoisie were developed. A partir de ces bourgeois les premiers éléments de la bourgeoisie ont été développés.
The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. La découverte de l'Amérique, la circumnavigation de l'Afrique, a ouvert un nouveau champ pour la bourgeoisie montante. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonisation of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development. Les marchés des Indes orientales et chinoises, la colonisation de l'Amérique, le commerce avec les colonies, l'accroissement des moyens d'échange et de matières premières en général, a donné au commerce, à la navigation, à l'industrie, une impulsion jamais connue, et partant, à l'élément révolutionnaire dans la société féodale, un développement rapide.
The feudal system of industry, in which industrial production was monopolized by closed guilds, now no longer suffices for the growing wants of the new markets. Le système féodal de l'industrie, dans laquelle la production industrielle a été monopolisé par les guildes fermé, ne suffit plus aujourd'hui pour les besoins de croissance des nouveaux marchés. The manufacturing system took its place. Le système de fabrication a pris sa place. The guild-masters were pushed aside by the manufacturing middle class; division of labor between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labor in each single workshop. La guilde des maîtres ont été évincées par la classe moyenne de fabrication, la division du travail entre les différentes corporations céda face à la division du travail dans l'atelier même.
Meantime, the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising. En attendant, les marchés gardé sans cesse croissante, la demande toujours croissante. Even manufacturers no longer sufficed. Même les fabricants ne suffisent plus. Thereupon, steam and machinery revolutionized industrial production. Alors, la vapeur et la machine révolutionnèrent la production industrielle. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, MODERN INDUSTRY; the place of the industrial middle class by industrial millionaires, the leaders of the whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois. Le lieu de fabrication a été prise par le géant, l'industrie moderne, l'endroit de la classe moyenne industrielle par les millionnaires de l'industrie, les chefs des armées toute l'industrie, le bourgeois moderne.
Modern industry has established the world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. La grande industrie a créé le marché mondial, pour lequel la découverte de l'Amérique a ouvert la voie. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. Ce marché a donné un immense développement au commerce, à la navigation, à la communication par voie terrestre. This development has, in turn, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages. Ce développement a, à son tour, a réagi sur l'extension de l'industrie et à mesure que l'industrie, du commerce, de navigation, des chemins de fer étendu, dans la même proportion de la bourgeoisie développés, l'augmentation de son capital, et poussé dans l'arrière-plan toutes les classes léguées par le Moyen-Age.
We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange. Nous voyons donc comment la bourgeoisie moderne est elle-même le produit d'un long développement, d'une série de révolutions dans les modes de production et d'échange.
Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance in that class. Chaque étape dans le développement de la bourgeoisie était accompagné d'une avance correspondant politique dans cette classe. An oppressed class under the sway of the feudal nobility, an armed and self-governing association of medieval commune [4] : here independent urban republic (as in Italy and Germany); there taxable "third estate" of the monarchy (as in France); afterward, in the period of manufacturing proper, serving either the semi-feudal or the absolute monarchy as a counterpoise against the nobility, and, in fact, cornerstone of the great monarchies in general -- the bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of the world market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative state, exclusive political sway. Une classe opprimée sous le joug de la noblesse féodale, une association armée et autonome de la commune médiévale [4] : ici indépendante urbaine République (comme en Italie et en Allemagne), il y imposable »tiers» de la monarchie (comme en France ); par la suite, dans la période de fabrication correcte, soit vers les semi-féodal ou la monarchie absolue comme un contrepoids de la noblesse, et, en fait, pierre angulaire des grandes monarchies en général - la bourgeoisie a enfin, depuis le établissement de l'industrie moderne et du marché mondial, conquis pour lui-même, dans l'Etat représentatif moderne, exclusif domination politique. The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie. L'exécutif de l'État moderne n'est qu'un comité qui gère les affaires communes de toute la bourgeoisie.
The bourgeoisie, historically, has played a most revolutionary part. La bourgeoisie, historiquement, a joué un rôle éminemment révolutionnaire.
The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. La bourgeoisie, partout où elle a pris le dessus, a mis un terme à toutes féodales, patriarcales, idylliques relations. It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his "natural superiors", and has left no other nexus between people than naked self-interest, than callous "cash payment". Elle a impitoyablement déchiré les liens féodaux hétéroclites que l'homme lié à ses «supérieurs naturels», et n'a laissé aucun autre lien, entre les gens, que le froid intérêt, que "paiement comptant" calleux. It has drowned out the most heavenly ecstacies of religious fervor, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of philistine sentimentalism, in the icy water of egotistical calculation. Elle a noyé les extases les plus paradisiaques de la ferveur religieuse, de l'enthousiasme chevaleresque, de la sentimentalité petite-bourgeoise dans les eaux glacées du calcul égoïste. It has resolved personal worth into exchange value, and in place of the numberless indefeasible chartered freedoms, has set up that single, unconscionable freedom -- Free Trade. Il a résolu la valeur personnelle dans la valeur d'échange, et à la place des innombrables libertés imprescriptibles affrété, a mis en place que seule, la liberté inconcevable - de libre-échange. In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation. En un mot, pour l'exploitation que masquaient les illusions religieuses et politiques, elle a ouverte, éhontée, directe, brutale exploitation.
The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation hitherto honored and looked up to with reverent awe. La bourgeoisie a dépouillé de leur auréole toutes les activités jusqu'ici honoré et leva les yeux avec un saint respect. It has converted the physician, the lawyer, the priest, the poet, the man of science, into its paid wage laborers. Il a converti le médecin, le juriste, le prêtre, le poète, l'homme de science, en salariés à ses gages.
The bourgeoisie has torn away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation into a mere money relation. La bourgeoisie a déchiré loin de la famille de son voile sentimentale, et a réduit la relation familiale dans une relation d'argent simple.
The bourgeoisie has disclosed how it came to pass that the brutal display of vigor in the Middle Ages, which reactionaries so much admire, found its fitting complement in the most slothful indolence. La bourgeoisie a révélé comment il arriva que l'affichage de la vigueur brutale au Moyen Age, qui réactionnaires tant admirer, a trouvé son complément naturel dans la paresse la plus paresseux. It has been the first to show what man's activity can bring about. Il a été le premier à montrer ce que l'activité de l'homme peut apporter. It has accomplished wonders far surpassing Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and Gothic cathedrals; it has conducted expeditions that put in the shade all former exoduses of nations and crusades. Il a accompli des merveilles que les pyramides d'Egypte, les aqueducs romains, les cathédrales gothiques, elle a mené des expéditions que dans l'ombre tous les exodes anciens des nations et des croisades.
The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society. La bourgeoisie ne peut exister sans révolutionner constamment les instruments de production, et donc les rapports de production, et avec eux l'ensemble des rapports sociaux. Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered form, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Conservation de l'ancien mode de production sous une forme inchangée, a été, au contraire, la première condition d'existence pour toutes les classes industrielles antérieures. Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. Constante en train de révolutionner la production, le bouleversement continu de toutes conditions sociales, l'incertitude et l'agitation permanentes distinguent l'époque bourgeoise de toutes les précédentes. All fixed, fast frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. Tous les fixes, rapide relations congelés, avec leur cortège de préjugés antiques et vénérables et des opinions, sont balayées, toutes les nouvelles formées deviennent désuètes avant qu'elles ne peuvent s'ossifier. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real condition of life and his relations with his kind. Tout ce qui est solide fond dans l'air, tout ce qui était sacré est profané, et les hommes sont forcés enfin d'envisager avec des sens sobres son état réel de la vie et ses relations avec ses semblables.
The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. La nécessité d'un marché en expansion constante de ses produits, la bourgeoisie envahit toute la surface du globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere. Il lui faut s'implanter partout, s'établir partout, créer partout.
The bourgeoisie has, through its exploitation of the world market, given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. La bourgeoisie a, par son exploitation du marché mondial, étant donné un caractère cosmopolite à la production et de consommation dans chaque pays. To the great chagrin of reactionaries, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. Au grand désespoir des réactionnaires, elle a tiré sous les pieds de l'industrie sa base nationale où elle se trouvait. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. Toutes les vieilles industries nationales ont été détruites ou sont quotidiennement détruits. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. Elles sont supplantées par de nouvelles industries, dont l'adoption devient une question de vie ou de mort pour toutes les nations civilisées, industries qui n'emploient plus des matières premières indigènes, mais des matières premières tirées de régions les plus lointaines, les industries dont les produits se consomment non seulement à la maison , mais dans chaque quart du globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. En lieu et place des anciens besoins, satisfaits par la production du pays, nous trouvons besoins nouveaux, réclamant pour leur satisfaction les produits des contrées lointaines et les climats. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations. En lieu et place de l'ancien isolement local et national et l'autosuffisance, nous avons des relations dans tous les sens, l'interdépendance universelle des nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. Et comme dans le matériel, donc aussi dans la production intellectuelle. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. Les créations intellectuelles d'une nation deviennent la propriété commune. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature. National unilatéralité et l'étroitesse d'esprit de plus en plus impossible, et de la littérature de nombreux niveaux national et local, il se produit une littérature mondiale.
The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilization. La bourgeoisie, par l'amélioration rapide de tous les instruments de production, par l'infinie des moyens de communication, attire tout, même les plus barbares, les nations dans la civilisation. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it forces the barbarians' intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. Le bon marché de produits est la grosse artillerie avec laquelle il la haine des forces les plus opiniâtrement les barbares "d'étrangers à capituler. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst, ie, to become bourgeois themselves. Elle contraint toutes les nations, sous peine d'extinction, à adopter le mode bourgeois de production, il les contraint à introduire ce qu'il appelle la civilisation au milieu d'eux, c'est à dire à devenir bourgeoises. In one word, it creates a world after its own image. En un mot, elle crée un monde à son image.
The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule of the towns. La bourgeoisie a soumis la campagne à la règle des villes. It has created enormous cities, has greatly increased the urban population as compared with the rural, and has thus rescued a considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rural life. Il a créé d'énormes cités, a considérablement augmenté la population urbaine par rapport à la population rurale, et a ainsi sauvé une partie considérable de la population de l'idiotie de la vie rurale. Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so it has made barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent on the civilized ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on the West. Tout comme il a fait du pays dépend des villes, il a rendu les pays barbares et demi-barbares dépendent les civilisés, les peuples de paysans aux peuples de bourgeois, l'Orient à l'Occident.
The bourgeoisie keeps more and more doing away with the scattered state of the population, of the means of production, and of property. La bourgeoisie supprime de plus en plus de faire disparaître l'état dispersé de la population, des moyens de production et de propriété. It has agglomerated population, centralized the means of production, and has concentrated property in a few hands. Elle a aggloméré la population, centralisé les moyens de production et concentré la propriété dans quelques mains. The necessary consequence of this was political centralization. La conséquence nécessaire de cette a été la centralisation politique. Independent, or but loosely connected provinces, with separate interests, laws, governments, and systems of taxation, became lumped together into one nation, with one government, one code of laws, one national class interest, one frontier, and one customs tariff. Provinces indépendantes, tout juste fédérées entre elles, ayant des intérêts distincts, les lois, les gouvernements et les systèmes de taxation, ont été réunies en une seule nation, avec un gouvernement, un code de lois, un intérêt national de classe, une frontière, et un tarif douanier.
The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together. La bourgeoisie, au cours de sa domination de classe à peine séculaire, a créé plus massives et plus colossales que les forces productives ont toutes les générations précédentes ensemble. Subjection of nature's forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalization or rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground -- what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labor? Assujettissement des forces de la nature à l'homme, de la machinerie, de l'application de la chimie à l'industrie et l'agriculture, la navigation à vapeur, chemins de fer, les télégraphes électriques, le défrichement des continents entiers pour la culture, la canalisation ou des rivières, des populations entières surgies du sol - quel siècle antérieur aurait soupçonné le pressentiment que ces forces productives sommeillaient au sein du travail social?
We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. Nous voyons donc: les moyens de production et d'échange, dont la fondation sur la bourgeoisie se construit, ont été générées dans la société féodale. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged, the feudal organization of agriculture and manufacturing industry, in one word, the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. A un certain stade dans le développement de ces moyens de production et d'échange, les conditions dans lesquelles la société féodale produisait et échangées, l'organisation féodale de l'agriculture et l'industrie manufacturière, en un mot, les relations féodales de propriété est devenu plus compatible avec les déjà développé les forces productives; ils sont devenus autant de chaînes. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Ils devaient être éclater, ils étaient brise en éclats.
Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. Dans leur lieu intensifié la concurrence libre, accompagné d'une constitution sociale et politique adaptée en elle, et l'emprise économique et politique de la classe bourgeoise.
A similar movement is going on before our own eyes. Un mouvement similaire se passe devant nos propres yeux. Modern bourgeois society, with its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells. La société bourgeoise moderne, avec ses rapports de production, d'échange et de biens, une société qui a évoqué un tel gigantesques moyens de production et d'échange, est comme le sorcier qui n'est plus en mesure de contrôler les pouvoirs du monde inférieur auquel il a appelé par ses sorts. For many a decade past, the history of industry and commerce is but the history of the revolt of modern productive forces against modern conditions of production, against the property relations that are the conditions for the existence of the bourgeois and of its rule. Pour beaucoup une dernière décennie, l'histoire de l'industrie et le commerce n'est que l'histoire de la révolte des forces productives modernes contre les rapports modernes de production, contre les relations de propriété qui sont les conditions pour l'existence de la bourgeoisie et sa domination. It is enough to mention the commercial crises that, by their periodical return, put the existence of the entire bourgeois society on its trial, each time more threateningly. Il suffit de mentionner les crises commerciales qui, par leur retour périodique, mettre l'existence de la société bourgeoise de son procès, à chaque fois plus menaçants. In these crises, a great part not only of the existing products, but also of the previously created productive forces, are periodically destroyed. Dans ces crises, une grande partie non seulement des produits existants, mais aussi des forces productives déjà créé, sont périodiquement détruites. In these crises, there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, would have seemed an absurdity -- the epidemic of over-production. Dans ces crises, il éclate une épidémie qui, à toutes les époques antérieures, aurait semblé une absurdité, - l'épidémie de la surproduction. Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism; it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be destroyed. Société se trouve subitement ramenée à un état de barbarie momentanée; il apparaît que si une famine, une guerre d'extermination, avait coupé la fourniture de tous les moyens de subsistance; industrie et le commerce semblent anéantis. And why? Et pourquoi? Because there is too much civilization, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, too much commerce. Parce qu'il ya trop de civilisation, des moyens trop de subsistance, trop d'industrie, le commerce trop. The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring disorder into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property. Les forces productives à la disposition de la société n'est plus tendance à favoriser le développement des conditions de la propriété bourgeoise, au contraire, ils sont devenus trop puissants pour ces conditions, par laquelle ils sont enchaînés, et dès qu'ils surmonter ces entraves, ils apportent le désordre dans l'ensemble de la société bourgeoise, mettent en danger l'existence de la propriété bourgeoise. The conditions of bourgeois society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them. Les conditions de la société bourgeoise sont trop étroites pour contenir les richesses créées par eux. And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? Et comment la bourgeoisie surmonte ces crises? On the one hand, by enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces; on the other, by the conquest of new markets, and by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. D'une part, par application destruction d'une masse de forces productives, de l'autre, par la conquête de nouveaux marchés et en exploitant plus à fond les anciens. That is to say, by paving the way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented. C'est-à-dire, en ouvrant la voie à des crises plus générales et plus formidables et à diminuer le moyen par lequel les crises sont prévenues.
The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself. Les armes dont la bourgeoisie abattus féodalisme au sol sont maintenant tournés contre la bourgeoisie elle-même.
But not only has the bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring death to itself; it has also called into existence the men who are to wield those weapons -- the modern working class -- the proletarians. Mais non seulement la bourgeoisie forgé les armes qui la mettront à mort, il a aussi appelé à l'existence des hommes qui sont à manier ces armes - la classe ouvrière moderne - les prolétaires.
In proportion as the bourgeoisie, ie, capital, is developed, in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class, developed -- a class of laborers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labor increases capital. A mesure que la bourgeoisie, c'est à dire le capital, est développé, dans la même proportion, c'est le prolétariat, la classe ouvrière moderne, développé - une classe de travailleurs, qui ne vivent que tant qu'ils trouvent du travail, et qui trouvent du travail que si longtemps que leur travail les augmentations de capital. These laborers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market. Ces manoeuvres, qui doivent se vendre au coup par coup, sont une marchandise, comme tout autre article de commerce, et sont par conséquent exposés à toutes les vicissitudes de la concurrence, à toutes les fluctuations du marché.
Owing to the extensive use of machinery, and to the division of labor, the work of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and, consequently, all charm for the workman. Grâce à l'utilisation massive de machines, et à la division du travail, le travail des prolétaires a perdu tout caractère individuel, et, par conséquent, tout le charme de l'ouvrier. He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him. Il devient un appendice de la machine, et c'est seulement le don le plus simple, plus monotone et plus facilement acquis, qui est exigé de lui. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted, almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for maintenance, and for the propagation of his race. Ainsi, le coût de production d'un ouvrier est restreint, presque entièrement, les moyens de subsistance dont il a besoin pour l'entretien, et pour la propagation de sa race. But the price of a commodity, and therefore also of labor, is equal to its cost of production. Mais le prix d'une marchandise, et donc aussi du travail, est égal à son coût de production. In proportion, therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work increases, the wage decreases. En proportion, par conséquent, que la répulsion des augmentations de travail, le salaire diminue. What is more, in proportion as the use of machinery and division of labor increases, in the same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by the increase of the work exacted in a given time, or by increased speed of machinery, etc. Qui plus est, à mesure que l'utilisation des machines et la division du travail augmente, dans la même proportion le fardeau du labeur augmente également, que ce soit par la prolongation des heures de travail, par l'augmentation du travail exigé dans un temps donné, ou par augmentation de la vitesse des machines, etc
Modern Industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Industrie moderne a transformé le petit atelier du maître patriarcale dans la grande fabrique du capitaliste industriel. Masses of laborers, crowded into the factory, are organized like soldiers. Des masses d'ouvriers, entassés dans la fabrique, sont organisés comme des soldats. As privates of the industrial army, they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Simples soldats de l'armée industrielle, ils sont placés sous le commandement d'une hiérarchie parfaite des officiers et sergents. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois state; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, and, above all, in the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. Non seulement ils sont esclaves de la classe bourgeoise, et de l'Etat bourgeois, ils sont tous les jours et horaires réduits en esclavage par la machine, par le contremaître, et, surtout, dans le fabricant individuel bourgeois lui-même. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is. Plus ce despotisme proclame ouvertement gain à sa fin et le but, plus petits, les plus odieux et le plus aigrissant il est.
The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual labor, in other words, the more modern industry becomes developed, the more is the labor of men superseded by that of women. Le moins le talent et l'effort de force implicite dans le travail manuel, en d'autres termes, l'industrie devient plus moderne développé, plus le travail des hommes remplacée par celle des femmes. Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social validity for the working class. Les différences d'âge et le sexe ont plus aucune validité social distinct pour la classe ouvrière. All are instruments of labor, more or less expensive to use, according to their age and sex. Tous sont des instruments de travail, plus ou moins coûteux à utiliser, en fonction de leur âge et le sexe.
No sooner is the exploitation of the laborer by the manufacturer, so far at an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other portion of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker, etc. A peine est l'exploitation de l'ouvrier par le fabricant, jusqu'à présent à une fin, qu'il reçoit son salaire en espèces, que ce qu'il est attaqué par l'autre partie de la bourgeoisie, le propriétaire, l'épicier, le prêteur sur gages, etc
The lower strata of the middle class -- the small tradespeople, shopkeepers, and retired tradesmen generally, the handicraftsmen and peasants -- all these sink gradually into the proletariat, partly because their diminutive capital does not suffice for the scale on which Modern Industry is carried on, and is swamped in the competition with the large capitalists, partly because their specialized skill is rendered worthless by new methods of production. Les couches inférieures de la classe moyenne - les petits commerçants, des commerçants et artisans à la retraite en général, les artisans et les paysans - tous ces puits progressivement dans le prolétariat, en partie parce que leur capital diminutif ne suffit pas pour l'échelle à laquelle l'industrie moderne est exercée, et est submergé dans la compétition avec les grands capitalistes, en partie parce que leurs compétences spécialisées est rendue inutile par les nouvelles méthodes de production. Thus, the proletariat is recruited from all classes of the population. Ainsi, le prolétariat se recrute dans toutes les classes de la population.
The proletariat goes through various stages of development. Le prolétariat passe par différents stades de développement. With its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie. Grâce à sa naissance commence sa lutte avec la bourgeoisie. At first, the contest is carried on by individual laborers, then by the work of people of a factory, then by the operative of one trade, in one locality, against the individual bourgeois who directly exploits them. Dans un premier temps, le concours est exploitée par des ouvriers isolés, ensuite par le travail des personnes d'une usine, puis par l'opérateur d'un commerce, dans une localité, contre le bourgeois qui exploite directement. They direct their attacks not against the bourgeois condition of production, but against the instruments of production themselves; they destroy imported wares that compete with their labor, they smash to pieces machinery, they set factories ablaze, they seek to restore by force the vanished status of the workman of the Middle Ages. Ils dirigent leurs attaques non contre la condition de la production bourgeoise, mais contre les instruments de production eux-mêmes; ils détruisent les marchandises importées qui entrent en compétition avec leur travail, ils Smash pièces aux machines, ils ont mis des usines en feu, ils cherchent à restaurer par la force l'état a disparu de l'ouvrier du Moyen Age.
At this stage, the laborers still form an incoherent mass scattered over the whole country, and broken up by their mutual competition. A ce stade, les ouvriers forment encore une masse incohérente dispersés sur l'ensemble du pays, et brisée par leur concurrence mutuelle. If anywhere they unite to form more compact bodies, this is not yet the consequence of their own active union, but of the union of the bourgeoisie, which class, in order to attain its own political ends, is compelled to set the whole proletariat in motion, and is moreover yet, for a time, able to do so. Si partout où ils s'unissent pour former des corps plus compact, ce n'est pas encore la conséquence de leur syndicat actif, mais de l'union de la bourgeoisie qui, en vue d'atteindre ses propres fins politiques, est contraint de mettre l'ensemble du prolétariat dans la mouvement, et est d'ailleurs encore, pour un temps, en mesure de le faire. At this stage, therefore, the proletarians do not fight their enemies, but the enemies of their enemies, the remnants of absolute monarchy, the landowners, the non-industrial bourgeois, the petty bourgeois. A ce stade, donc, les prolétaires ne combattent leurs ennemis, mais les ennemis de leurs ennemis, les vestiges de la monarchie absolue, propriétaires fonciers, les bourgeois non industriels, petits bourgeois. Thus, the whole historical movement is concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie; every victory so obtained is a victory for the bourgeoisie. Ainsi, l'ensemble du mouvement historique est concentré dans les mains de la bourgeoisie; chaque victoire ainsi obtenue est une victoire pour la bourgeoisie.
But with the development of industry, the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more. Mais avec le développement de l'industrie, le prolétariat non seulement augmente en nombre, elle devient plus concentrée dans les masses, sa force grandit, et il estime que plus de force. The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the proletariat are more and more equalized, in proportion as machinery obliterates all distinctions of labor, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level. Les divers intérêts et les conditions de vie dans les rangs du prolétariat sont de plus en plus égalisé, à mesure que les machines efface toutes les distinctions du travail, et presque partout réduit les salaires au même niveau faible. The growing competition among the bourgeois, and the resulting commercial crises, make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating. La concurrence croissante entre les bourgeois et les crises commerciales qui en résultent, font les salaires des travailleurs de plus en plus fluctuants. The increasing improvement of machinery, ever more rapidly developing, makes their livelihood more and more precarious; the collisions between individual workmen and individual bourgeois take more and more the character of collisions between two classes. L'amélioration croissante des machines, de plus en plus se développe rapidement, fait leur gagne-pain de plus en plus précaire; les collisions entre ouvriers individu et de prendre des bourgeois de plus en plus le caractère de collisions entre deux classes. Thereupon, the workers begin to form combinations (trade unions) against the bourgeois; they club together in order to keep up the rate of wages; they found permanent associations in order to make provision beforehand for these occasional revolts. Alors, les ouvriers commencent à former des combinaisons (syndicats) contre les bourgeois, ils club ensemble, afin de maintenir le taux des salaires; ils ont trouvé des associations permanentes, afin de prévoir à l'avance pour ces révoltes occasionnelles. Here and there, the contest breaks out into riots. Ici et là, le concours éclate en émeutes.
Now and then the workers are victorious, but only for a time. De temps en temps les travailleurs sont victorieux, mais seulement pour un temps. The real fruit of their battles lie not in the immediate result, but in the ever expanding union of the workers. Le véritable fruit de leurs batailles ne résident pas dans le résultat immédiat, mais dans l'union grandissante des travailleurs. This union is helped on by the improved means of communication that are created by Modern Industry, and that place the workers of different localities in contact with one another. Cette union est facilitée par l'amélioration des moyens de communication qui sont créés par l'industrie moderne, et que la place des travailleurs de différentes localités en contact avec l'autre. It was just this contact that was needed to centralize the numerous local struggles, all of the same character, into one national struggle between classes. C'était juste ce contact qui a été nécessaire de centraliser les nombreuses luttes locales, toutes de même nature, dans un combat national entre les classes. But every class struggle is a political struggle. Mais toute lutte de classes est une lutte politique. And that union, to attain which the burghers of the Middle Ages, with their miserable highways, required centuries, the modern proletarian, thanks to railways, achieve in a few years. Et cette union, pour atteindre ce qui les bourgeois du Moyen-Age, avec leurs autoroutes misérables, des siècles requises, le prolétaire moderne, grâce aux chemins de fer, d'atteindre dans quelques années.
This organization of the proletarians into a class, and, consequently, into a political party, is continually being upset again by the competition between the workers themselves. Cette organisation du prolétariat en classe, et, par conséquent, en un parti politique, est sans cesse bouleversée à nouveau par la concurrence entre les travailleurs eux-mêmes. But it ever rises up again, stronger, firmer, mightier. Mais il se lève toujours à nouveau, plus fort, plus ferme, plus puissante. It compels legislative recognition of particular interests of the workers, by taking advantage of the divisions among the bourgeoisie itself. Elle oblige la reconnaissance législative des intérêts particuliers des travailleurs, en profitant des divisions entre la bourgeoisie elle-même. Thus, the Ten-Hours Bill in England was carried. Ainsi, la loi des dix-heures en Angleterre a été réalisée.
Altogether, collisions between the classes of the old society further in many ways the course of development of the proletariat. Au total, les collisions entre les classes de la vieille société encore à bien des égards au cours du développement du prolétariat. The bourgeoisie finds itself involved in a constant battle. La bourgeoisie se retrouve impliqué dans une bataille constante. At first with the aristocracy; later on, with those portions of the bourgeoisie itself, whose interests have become antagonistic to the progress of industry; at all time with the bourgeoisie of foreign countries. Dans un premier temps avec l'aristocratie; plus tard, avec les portions de la bourgeoisie elle-même, dont les intérêts sont devenus antagonistes à l'avancement de l'industrie; en tout temps avec la bourgeoisie des pays étrangers. In all these battles, it sees itself compelled to appeal to the proletariat, to ask for help, and thus to drag it into the political arena. Dans toutes ces batailles, elle se voit obligée de faire appel au prolétariat, pour demander de l'aide, et donc de le glisser dans l'arène politique. The bourgeoisie itself, therefore, supplies the proletariat with its own elements of political and general education, in other words, it furnishes the proletariat with weapons for fighting the bourgeoisie. La bourgeoisie elle-même, par conséquent, les fournitures du prolétariat avec ses propres éléments de l'éducation politique et générale, en d'autres termes, il fournit le prolétariat en armes pour la lutte contre la bourgeoisie.
Further, as we have already seen, entire sections of the ruling class are, by the advance of industry, precipitated into the proletariat, or are at least threatened in their conditions of existence. En outre, comme nous l'avons déjà vu, des sections entières de la classe dirigeante sont, par le progrès de l'industrie, précipitées dans le prolétariat, ou sont moins menacés dans leurs conditions d'existence. These also supply the proletariat with fresh elements of enlightenment and progress. Ces fournissons également le prolétariat avec de nouveaux éléments d'illumination et de progrès.
Finally, in times when the class struggle nears the decisive hour, the progress of dissolution going on within the ruling class, in fact within the whole range of old society, assumes such a violent, glaring character, that a small section of the ruling class cuts itself adrift, and joins the revolutionary class, the class that holds the future in its hands. Enfin, à une époque où la lutte des classes approche de l'heure décisive, le progrès de la dissolution passe au sein de la classe dirigeante, en fait, au sein de l'ensemble de la vieille société, suppose une telle violence, le caractère âpre qu'une petite fraction de la classe dirigeante se détache de et rejoint la classe révolutionnaire, la classe qui détient l'avenir dans ses mains. Just as, therefore, at an earlier period, a section of the nobility went over to the bourgeoisie, so now a portion of the bourgeoisie goes over to the proletariat, and in particular, a portion of the bourgeois ideologists, who have raised themselves to the level of comprehending theoretically the historical movement as a whole. De même que, par conséquent, à une période antérieure, une section de la noblesse passa à la bourgeoisie, alors maintenant une partie de la bourgeoisie passe au prolétariat, et en particulier, une partie des idéologues bourgeois qui se sont haussés jusqu'à le niveau de compréhension théorique du mouvement historique dans son ensemble.
Of all the classes that stand face to face with the bourgeoisie today, the proletariat alone is a genuinely revolutionary class. De toutes les classes qui se dressent face à face avec la bourgeoisie d'aujourd'hui, le prolétariat seul est une classe vraiment révolutionnaire. The other classes decay and finally disappear in the face of Modern Industry; the proletariat is its special and essential product. Les autres classes périclitent et périssent avec le visage de l'industrie moderne, le prolétariat est le produit le plus essentiel.
The lower middle class, the small manufacturer, the shopkeeper, the artisan, the peasant, all these fight against the bourgeoisie, to save from extinction their existence as fractions of the middle class. La classe moyenne inférieure, le petit fabricant, le commerçant, l'artisan, le paysan, tous combattent la bourgeoisie, pour sauver de l'extinction de leur existence en tant que fractions de la classe moyenne. They are therefore not revolutionary, but conservative. Ils ne sont donc pas révolutionnaires, mais conservatrices. Nay, more, they are reactionary, for they try to roll back the wheel of history. Bien plus, elles sont réactionnaires: elles cherchent à faire tourner la roue de l'histoire. If, by chance, they are revolutionary, they are only so in view of their impending transfer into the proletariat; they thus defend not their present, but their future interests; they desert their own standpoint to place themselves at that of the proletariat. Si, par hasard, elles sont révolutionnaires, ils ne sont donc en vue de leur passage imminent au prolétariat: elles défendent alors leurs pas présents, mais leurs intérêts futurs; elles abandonnent leur propre point de vue pour se placer à celui du prolétariat.
The "dangerous class", the social scum, that passively rotting mass thrown off by the lowest layers of the old society, may, here and there, be swept into the movement by a proletarian revolution; its conditions of life, however, prepare it far more for the part of a bribed tool of reactionary intrigue. La «classe dangereuse», l'écume sociale, que la masse passif de la pourriture jeté par les couches inférieures de la vieille société, peut, ici et là, entraîné dans le mouvement par une révolution prolétarienne; ses conditions de vie, cependant, il prépare beaucoup plus pour la partie d'un outil soudoyé des intrigues réactionnaires.
In the condition of the proletariat, those of old society at large are already virtually swamped. Dans la condition du prolétariat, ceux de la vieille société au sens large sont déjà quasiment submergés. The proletarian is without property; his relation to his wife and children has no longer anything in common with the bourgeois family relations; modern industry labor, modern subjection to capital, the same in England as in France, in America as in Germany, has stripped him of every trace of national character. Le prolétaire est sans propriété; sa relation avec sa femme et ses enfants a plus rien en commun avec les relations famille bourgeoise, le travail de l'industrie moderne, la sujétion modernes au capital, de même en Angleterre comme en France, en Amérique comme en Allemagne, a dépouillé lui de toute trace de caractère national. Law, morality, religion, are to him so many bourgeois prejudices, behind which lurk in ambush just as many bourgeois interests. Loi, la morale, la religion, sont pour lui autant de préjugés bourgeois, derrière lesquels se cachent aussi de nombreux intérêts bourgeois.
All the preceding classes that got the upper hand sought to fortify their already acquired status by subjecting society at large to their conditions of appropriation. Toutes les classes qui a pris le dessus cherché à consolider leur situation acquise en soumettant la société au sens large de leurs conditions d'appropriation. The proletarians cannot become masters of the productive forces of society, except by abolishing their own previous mode of appropriation, and thereby also every other previous mode of appropriation. Les prolétaires ne peuvent se rendre maîtres des forces productives de la société, sauf en abolissant leur propre mode d'appropriation, et donc aussi tous les autres modes d'appropriation. They have nothing of their own to secure and to fortify; their mission is to destroy all previous securities for, and insurances of, individual property. Ils n'ont rien de leur propre sécurité et pour fortifier; leur mission est de détruire tous les titres précédents pour, et des assurances, de biens individuels.
All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. Tous les mouvements historiques ont été des mouvements de minorités ou dans l'intérêt des minorités. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interest of the immense majority. Le mouvement prolétarien est l'auto-conscience, mouvement indépendant de l'immense majorité, dans l'intérêt de l'immense majorité. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air. Le prolétariat, couche inférieure de la société actuelle, ne peut pas remuer, ne peut pas se relever, sans les strates de la société entière surincombantes officiel étant cintrées dans l'air.
Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. Bien que n'étant pas en substance, mais dans la forme, la lutte du prolétariat avec la bourgeoisie est d'abord une lutte nationale. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie. Le prolétariat de chaque pays doit, bien entendu, tout d'abord régler les questions avec sa propre bourgeoisie.
In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat. En illustrant les phases les plus générales de développement du prolétariat, nous avons retracé la guerre plus ou moins voilée civile, qui fait rage au sein de la société existante, jusqu'à l'heure où cette guerre éclate en révolution ouverte, et où le renversement violent de la bourgeoisie énonce le fondement de l'emprise du prolétariat.
Hitherto, every form of society has been based, as we have already seen, on the antagonism of oppressing and oppressed classes. Jusqu'alors, chaque forme de société a été fondée, comme nous l'avons vu, sur l'antagonisme des classes d'oppresseurs et les opprimés. But in order to oppress a class, certain conditions must be assured to it under which it can, at least, continue its slavish existence. Mais, pour opprimer une classe, certaines conditions doivent être assurés en vertu de laquelle il peut, au moins, continuer son existence servile. The serf, in the period of serfdom, raised himself to membership in the commune, just as the petty bourgeois, under the yoke of the feudal absolutism, managed to develop into a bourgeois. Le serf, dans la période du servage, se leva à l'adhésion de la commune, tout comme le petit bourgeois, sous le joug de l'absolutisme féodal, a réussi à se développer en un bourgeois. The modern laborer, on the contrary, instead of rising with the process of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class. L'ouvrier moderne au contraire, au lieu de s'élever avec le processus de l'industrie, descend toujours plus bas les conditions d'existence de sa propre classe. He becomes a pauper, and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and wealth. Il devient un pauvre, et le paupérisme s'accroît plus rapidement que la population et de richesse. And here it becomes evident that the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon society as an overriding law. Et ici, il devient évident que la bourgeoisie est incapable de plus d'être la classe dirigeante dans la société, et d'imposer ses conditions d'existence sur la société comme une loi primordiale. It is unfit to rule because it is incompetent to assure an existence to its slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a state, that it has to feed him, instead of being fed by him. Il est inapte à gouverner parce qu'il est incompétent pour assurer une existence de son esclave dans son esclavage, parce qu'il ne peut s'empêcher de le laisser sombrer dans un tel état, qu'il a lui donner à manger, au lieu d'être nourri par lui. Society can no longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no longer compatible with society. La société ne peut plus vivre sous cette bourgeoisie, en d'autres termes, son existence n'est plus compatible avec la société.
The essential conditions for the existence and for the sway of the bourgeois class is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage labor. Les conditions essentielles de l'existence et pour la domination de la classe bourgeoise est la formation et l'augmentation de capital, la condition pour le capital est le salariat. Wage labor rests exclusively on competition between the laborers. Le salariat repose exclusivement sur la concurrence des ouvriers entre eux. The advance of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the laborers, due to competition, by the revolutionary combination, due to association. L'avance de l'industrie, dont le promoteur est involontaire, la bourgeoisie, remplace l'isolement des ouvriers, en raison de la concurrence, par la combinaison révolutionnaire, due à l'association. The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. Le développement de l'industrie moderne, par conséquent, les coupures sous les pieds le fondement même sur lequel la bourgeoisie production et d'appropriation. What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Ce que la bourgeoisie produit donc, avant tout, sont ses propres fossoyeurs. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable. Sa chute et la victoire du prolétariat sont également inévitables.
FOOTNOTES NOTES
[1] By bourgeoisie is meant the class of modern capitalists, owners of the means of social production and employers of wage labor. [1] par la bourgeoisie, on entend la classe des capitalistes modernes, propriétaires des moyens de production sociaux et les employeurs du travail salarié.
By proletariat, the class of modern wage laborers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live. Par prolétariat, la classe des travailleurs salariés modernes qui, n'ayant pas les moyens de production propres, sont réduits à vendre leur force de travail pour vivre. [Note by Engels - 1888 English edition] [Note d'Engels - 1888 édition anglaise]
[2] That is, all _written_ history. [2] C'est, toute l'histoire _written_. In 1847, the pre-history of society, the social organization existing previous to recorded history, all but unknown. En 1847, la préhistoire de la société, l'organisation sociale existante antérieure à l'histoire, à peu près inconnue. Since then, August von Haxthausen (1792-1866) discovered common ownership of land in Russia, Georg Ludwig von Maurer proved it to be the social foundation from which all Teutonic races started in history, and, by and by, village communities were found to be, or to have been, the primitive form of society everywhere from India to Ireland. Depuis lors, août von Haxthausen (1792-1866) a découvert la propriété commune des terres en Russie, Georg Ludwig von Maurer s'est avéré que c'était la base sociale à partir de laquelle toutes les races teutoniques commencé dans l'histoire, et, par et par, les communautés villageoises ont été trouvés au être ou avoir été, la forme primitive de la société partout de l'Inde à l'Irlande. The inner organization of this primitive communistic society was laid bare, in its typical form, by Lewis Henry Morgan's (1818-1861) crowning discovery of the true nature of the gens and its relation to the tribe. L'organisation interne de cette société primitive communiste a été mis à nu, dans sa forme typique, par Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1861) découverte de couronnement de la vraie nature de la gens et sa relation à la tribu. With the dissolution of the primeaval communities, society begins to be differentiated into separate and finally antagonistic classes. Avec la dissolution des communautés primeaval, la société commence à se différencier en catégories distinctes et enfin antagonistes. I have attempted to retrace this dissolution in _Der Ursprung der J'ai essayé de retracer cette dissolution dans _Der Ursprung der
Familie, des Privateigenthumus und des Staats_, second edition, Stuttgart, 1886. Familie, des Privateigenthumus und des Staats_, deuxième édition, Stuttgart, 1886. [Engels, 1888 English edition] [Engels, 1888 édition anglaise]
[3] Guild-master, that is, a full member of a guild, a master within, not a head of a guild. [3] Guilde-maître, qui est un membre à part entière d'une guilde, un maître à l'intérieur, pas un chef d'une guilde. [Engels: 1888 English edition] [Engels: 1888 édition anglaise]
[4] This was the name given their urban communities by the townsmen of Italy and France, after they had purchased or conquered their initial rights of self-government from their feudal lords. [4] Ce fut le nom donné leurs communautés urbaines par les citadins de l'Italie et la France, après qu'ils avaient acheté ou conquis leurs droits initiaux de l'autonomie de leurs seigneurs féodaux. [Engels: 1890 German edition] [Engels: 1890 édition allemande]
"Commune" was the name taken in France by the nascent towns even before they had conquered from their feudal lords and masters local self-government and political rights as the "Third Estate". «Commune» était le nom pris en France par les villes naissantes, avant même qu'ils avaient conquis par leurs seigneurs et maîtres de l'autonomie locale et les droits politiques comme le "Tiers". Generally speaking, for the economical development of the bourgeoisie, England is here taken as the typical country, for its political development, France. De manière générale, pour le développement économique de la bourgeoisie, en Angleterre, est considérée ici comme le pays typique, pour son développement politique, en France. [Engels: 1888 English edition] [Engels: 1888 édition anglaise]
II -- PROLETARIANS AND COMMUNISTS II - les prolétaires et les COMMUNISTES
In what relation do the Communists stand to the proletarians as a whole? En ce qui concerne la position des communistes à l'ensemble des prolétaires? The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to the other working-class parties. Les communistes ne forment pas un parti distinct opposé aux autres partis ouvriers.
They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole. Ils n'ont pas d'intérêts séparés de ceux du prolétariat dans son ensemble.
They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mold the proletarian movement. Ils n'ont pas mis en place des principes sectaires de leurs propres, par lesquels ils voudraient modeler le mouvement prolétarien.
The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only: Les communistes ne se distinguent des autres partis ouvriers que sur deux points:
(1) In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. (1) Dans les luttes nationales des prolétaires des différents pays, ils soulignent et porter à l'avant les intérêts communs du prolétariat tout entier, indépendamment de toute nationalité.
(2) In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole. (2) Dans les différentes étapes de développement que la lutte de la classe ouvrière contre la bourgeoisie doit passer à travers, ils représentent toujours les intérêts du mouvement dans son ensemble.
The Communists, therefore, are on the one hand practically, the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others; on the other hand, theoretically, they have over the great mass of the proletariat the advantage of clearly understanding the lines of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement. Les communistes, par conséquent, sont d'une part pratiquement, la section la plus résolue des partis ouvriers de tous les pays, la fraction qui stimule toutes les autres; d'autre part, théoriquement, ils ont au cours de la grande masse des le prolétariat l'avantage de bien comprendre les lignes de mars, les conditions et les résultats ultimes générales du mouvement prolétarien.
The immediate aim of the Communists is the same as that of all other proletarian parties: Formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat. Le but immédiat des communistes est le même que celui de toutes les autres parties du prolétariat: Formation du prolétariat en classe, renversement de la domination bourgeoise, conquête du pouvoir politique par le prolétariat.
The theoretical conclusions of the Communists are in no way based on ideas or principles that have been invented, or discovered, by this or that would-be universal reformer. Les conclusions théoriques des communistes ne sont en rien fondées sur des idées ou des principes qui ont été inventés ou découverts par tel ou tel serait réformateur du monde.
They merely express, in general terms, actual relations springing from an existing class struggle, from a historical movement going on under our very eyes. Ils expriment simplement, en termes généraux, les relations réelles d'une lutte de classes existante, d'un mouvement historique qui s'opère sous nos yeux. The abolition of existing property relations is not at all a distinctive feature of communism. L'abolition des rapports de propriété existants n'est pas du tout une caractéristique distinctive du communisme.
All property relations in the past have continually been subject to historical change consequent upon the change in historical conditions. Tous les rapports de propriété dans le passé ont toujours été soumises au changement historique consécutif à la modification des conditions historiques.
The French Revolution, for example, abolished feudal property in favor of bourgeois property. La Révolution française, par exemple, a aboli la propriété féodale au profit de la propriété bourgeoise.
The distinguishing feature of communism is not the abolition of property generally, but the abolition of bourgeois property. Le trait distinctif du communisme n'est pas l'abolition de la propriété en général, mais l'abolition de la propriété bourgeoise. But modern bourgeois private property is the final and most complete expression of the system of producing and appropriating products that is based on class antagonisms, on the exploitation of the many by the few. Mais la propriété bourgeoise privée est l'expression finale et la plus complète du système de production et d'appropriation qui est basé sur les antagonismes de classe, sur l'exploitation des uns par les autres.
In this sense, the theory of the Communists may be summed up in the single sentence: Abolition of private property. En ce sens, la théorie des communistes peut se résumer dans la formule unique: abolition de la propriété privée.
We Communists have been reproached with the desire of abolishing the right of personally acquiring property as the fruit of a man's own labor, which property is alleged to be the groundwork of all personal freedom, activity and independence. Nous, communistes, ont reproché à la volonté d'abolir le droit de propriété personnellement acquise, fruit du travail propre d'un homme, dont la propriété est présumé être le fondement de toute liberté personnelle, l'activité et l'indépendance.
Hard-won, self-acquired, self-earned property! Chèrement acquise, l'auto-acquisition, la propriété d'auto-gagné! Do you mean the property of petty artisan and of the small peasant, a form of property that preceded the bourgeois form? Voulez-vous dire la propriété d'artisan mesquins et du petit paysan, une forme de propriété qui a précédé la forme bourgeoise? There is no need to abolish that; the development of industry has to a great extent already destroyed it, and is still destroying it daily. Il n'est pas nécessaire de l'abolir, le développement de l'industrie a une grande mesure déjà détruits, et est encore le détruire quotidienne.
Or do you mean the modern bourgeois private property? Ou voulez-vous dire de la propriété bourgeoise moderne privé?
But does wage labor create any property for the laborer? Mais le salariat ne crée pas de propriété pour l'ouvrier? Not a bit. Pas un peu. It creates capital, ie, that kind of property which exploits wage labor, and which cannot increase except upon conditions of begetting a new supply of wage labor for fresh exploitation. Il crée le capital, c'est à dire, ce genre de propriété qui exploite le travail salarié, et qui ne peuvent pas augmenter, sauf sur les conditions d'engendrement une nouvelle offre de travail salarié pour l'exploitation douce. Property, in its present form, is based on the antagonism of capital and wage labor. Propriété, dans sa forme actuelle, est basée sur l'antagonisme du capital et du salariat. Let us examine both sides of this antagonism. Laissez-nous examiner les deux côtés de cet antagonisme.
To be a capitalist, is to have not only a purely personal, but a social STATUS in production. Pour être un capitaliste, est d'avoir non seulement une position purement personnelle, mais un statut social dans la production. Capital is a collective product, and only by the united action of many members, nay, in the last resort, only by the united action of all members of society, can it be set in motion. Le capital est un produit collectif, et seulement par l'action unie de nombreux membres, et même, en dernier ressort, que par l'action unie de tous les membres de la société, peut-il être mis en mouvement.
Capital is therefore not only personal; it is a social power. Le capital est donc non seulement personnelle, elle est une puissance sociale.
When, therefore, capital is converted into common property, into the property of all members of society, personal property is not thereby transformed into social property. Lorsque, par conséquent, le capital est converti en un bien commun, dans la propriété de tous les membres de la société, les biens personnels n'est pas pour autant transformée en propriété sociale. It is only the social character of the property that is changed. C'est seulement le caractère social de la propriété qui est changé. It loses its class character. Elle perd son caractère de classe.
Let us now take wage labor. Prenons maintenant le travail salarié.
The average price of wage labor is the minimum wage, ie, that quantum of the means of subsistence which is absolutely requisite to keep the laborer in bare existence as a laborer. Le prix moyen du travail salarié est le salaire minimum, à savoir que la somme des moyens de subsistance qui est absolument nécessaire pour maintenir le travailleur dans l'existence tant qu'ouvrier. What, therefore, the wage laborer appropriates by means of his labor merely suffices to prolong and reproduce a bare existence. Que, par conséquent, le travailleur salarié s'approprie par le biais de son travail suffit simplement de prolonger et de reproduire une existence nue. We by no means intend to abolish this personal appropriation of the products of labor, an appropriation that is made for the maintenance and reproduction of human life, and that leaves no surplus wherewith to command the labor of others. Nous en aucun cas l'intention d'abolir cette appropriation personnelle des produits du travail, une appropriation qui est faite pour le maintien et la reproduction de la vie humaine, et qui ne laisse pas d'excédent de quoi la commande du travail d'autrui. All that we want to do away with is the miserable character of this appropriation, under which the laborer lives merely to increase capital, and is allowed to live only in so far as the interest of the ruling class requires it. Tout ce que nous voulons faire disparaître est le caractère misérable de cette appropriation, en vertu de laquelle l'ouvrier ne vit que pour accroître le capital, et est autorisé à vivre seulement dans la mesure où l'intérêt de la classe dirigeante elle a besoin.
In bourgeois society, living labor is but a means to increase accumulated labor. Dans la société bourgeoise, le travail vivant n'est qu'un moyen d'accroître le travail accumulé. In communist society, accumulated labor is but a means to widen, to enrich, to promote the existence of the laborer. Dans la société communiste, le travail accumulé n'est qu'un moyen d'élargir, d'enrichir, de promouvoir l'existence de l'ouvrier.
In bourgeois society, therefore, the past dominates the present; in communist society, the present dominates the past. Dans la société bourgeoise, donc, le passé domine le présent; dans la société communiste, le présent qui domine le passé. In bourgeois society, capital is independent and has individuality, while the living person is dependent and has no individuality. Dans la société bourgeoise, le capital est indépendant et personnel, tandis que la personne vivante est dépendant et n'a pas d'individualité.
And the abolition of this state of things is called by the bourgeois, abolition of individuality and freedom! Et l'abolition de cet état de choses est appelé par les bourgeois, l'abolition de l'individualité et la liberté! And rightly so. Et avec raison. The abolition of bourgeois individuality, bourgeois independence, and bourgeois freedom is undoubtedly aimed at. L'abolition de l'individualité bourgeoise, l'indépendance bourgeoise, et de la liberté bourgeoise est sans doute destiné à.
By freedom is meant, under the present bourgeois conditions of production, free trade, free selling and buying. Par liberté, on entend, dans les conditions actuelles de production bourgeois, le libre-échange, la vente libre et d'achat.
But if selling and buying disappears, free selling and buying disappears also. Mais si la vente et l'achat disparaît, le libre trafic disparaît aussi. This talk about free selling and buying, and all the other "brave words" of our bourgeois about freedom in general, have a meaning, if any, only in contrast with restricted selling and buying, with the fettered traders of the Middle Ages, but have no meaning when opposed to the communist abolition of buying and selling, or the bourgeois conditions of production, and of the bourgeoisie itself. Cette parler sans achat et de vente, et tous les autres «paroles courageuses» de notre bourgeoise de la liberté en général, ont un sens, le cas échéant, que par contraste avec restreints vente et d'achat, avec les commerçants entravée du Moyen Age, mais n'ont aucun sens lorsqu'il s'agit de l'abolition communiste d'achat et de vente, ou les conditions de production bourgeois, et de la bourgeoisie elle-même.
You are horrified at our intending to do away with private property. Vous êtes horrifié à notre intention d'en finir avec la propriété privée. But in your existing society, private property is already done away with for nine-tenths of the population; its existence for the few is solely due to its non-existence in the hands of those nine-tenths. Mais dans votre société, la propriété privée est déjà abolie pour les neuf dixièmes de la population; son existence pour les rares est uniquement due à sa non-existence entre les mains de ces neuf dixièmes. You reproach us, therefore, with intending to do away with a form of property, the necessary condition for whose existence is the non-existence of any property for the immense majority of society. Vous nous reprochez donc, avec l'intention d'en finir avec une forme de propriété, la condition nécessaire pour dont l'existence est la non-existence d'une propriété pour l'immense majorité de la société.
In one word, you reproach us with intending to do away with your property. En un mot, vous nous accusez de vouloir abolir votre propriété. Precisely so; that is just what we intend. Précisément, c'est justement ce que nous entendons.
From the moment when labor can no longer be converted into capital, money, or rent, into a social power capable of being monopolized, ie, from the moment when individual property can no longer be transformed into bourgeois property, into capital, from that moment, you say, individuality vanishes. A partir du moment où le travail ne peut plus être convertie en capital, l'argent, ou de louer, dans un pouvoir social capable d'être monopolisé, c'est-à partir du moment où la propriété individuelle ne peut plus être transformé en propriété bourgeoise, en capital, à partir de ce moment , dites-vous, l'individualité disparaît.
You must, therefore, confess that by "individual" you mean no other person than the bourgeois, than the middle-class owner of property. Vous devez, par conséquent, confesse que par "individu" tu veux dire qu'aucune personne autre que le bourgeois, que le propriétaire de la classe moyenne de la propriété. This person must, indeed, be swept out of the way, and made impossible. Cette personne doit, en effet, être balayée de la route, et rendu impossible.
Communism deprives no man of the power to appropriate the products of society; all that it does is to deprive him of the power to subjugate the labor of others by means of such appropriations. Le communisme n'enlève à personne le pouvoir de s'approprier les produits de la société; tout ce qu'elle fait est de le priver du pouvoir d'asservir le travail des autres au moyen de ces crédits.
It has been objected that upon the abolition of private property, all work will cease, and universal laziness will overtake us. On a objecté encore qu'avec l'abolition de la propriété privée, toute activité cesserait, qu'une paresse universelle va nous dépasser.
According to this, bourgeois society ought long ago to have gone to the dogs through sheer idleness; for those who acquire anything, do not work. Selon cette étude, la société bourgeoise aurait depuis longtemps d'avoir été à l'oisiveté par des chiens pure; pour ceux qui acquièrent quelque chose, ne fonctionnent pas. The whole of this objection is but another expression of the tautology: There can no longer be any wage labor when there is no longer any capital. L'ensemble de cette objection n'est qu'une autre expression de la tautologie: Il ne peut plus y avoir de travail salarié quand il n'ya pas plus de capital.
All objections urged against the communistic mode of producing and appropriating material products, have, in the same way, been urged against the communistic mode of producing and appropriating intellectual products. Toutes les objections contre le mode exhorté communiste de production et d'appropriation du matériel, ont, de la même manière, été poussée contre le mode communiste de production et d'appropriation intellectuelle. Just as to the bourgeois, the disappearance of class property is the disappearance of production itself, so the disappearance of class culture is to him identical with the disappearance of all culture. Tout comme pour le bourgeois, la disparition de la propriété de classe est la disparition de la production elle-même, donc la disparition de la culture de classe signifie, pour lui avec la disparition de toute culture.
That culture, the loss of which he laments, is, for the enormous majority, a mere training to act as a machine. Cette culture, dont la perte se plaint-il, est, pour l'immense majorité, un simple entraînement pour agir comme une machine.
But don't wrangle with us so long as you apply, to our intended abolition of bourgeois property, the standard of your bourgeois notions of freedom, culture, law, etc. Your very ideas are but the outgrowth of the conditions of your bourgeois production and bourgeois property, just as your jurisprudence is but the will of your class made into a law for all, a will whose essential character and direction are determined by the economical conditions of existence of your class. Mais ne pas disputer avec nous aussi longtemps que vous appliquez, à notre destinée abolition de la propriété bourgeoise, le niveau de vos notions bourgeoises de liberté, de la culture, droit, etc Vos idées ne sont que très l'excroissance des conditions de votre production bourgeoise et la propriété bourgeoise, tout comme votre droit n'est que la volonté de votre classe érigée en loi pour tous, une volonté dont le caractère essentiel et la direction sont déterminés par les conditions matérielles d'existence de votre classe.
The selfish misconception that induces you to transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason the social forms stringing from your present mode of production and form of property -- historical relations that rise and disappear in the progress of production -- this misconception you share with every ruling class that has preceded you. Le malentendu égoïstes qui vous fait transformer en lois éternelles de la nature et de la raison des formes sociales cordage de votre mode de production et de propriété - des relations historiques qui montent et disparaissent dans la progression de la production - cette idée fausse que vous partagez avec toutes les classes dirigeantes qui vous a précédé. What you see clearly in the case of ancient property, what you admit in the case of feudal property, you are of course forbidden to admit in the case of your own bourgeois form of property. Ce que vous voyez clairement dans le cas de la propriété antique, ce que vous admettez dans le cas de la propriété féodale, vous êtes bien sûr interdit d'admettre dans le cas de votre formulaire de la propriété bourgeoise.
Abolition of the family! Abolition de la famille! Even the most radical flare up at this infamous proposal of the Communists. Même les plus radicaux s'indignent de cet infâme dessein des communistes.
On what foundation is the present family, the bourgeois family, based? Sur quelle base repose la famille actuelle, la famille bourgeoise, basée? On capital, on private gain. Le capital, le profit privé. In its completely developed form, this family exists only among the bourgeoisie. Dans sa forme complètement développée, cette famille n'existe que dans la bourgeoisie. But this state of things finds its complement in the practical absence of the family among proletarians, and in public prostitution. Mais cet état de choses trouve son complément dans la quasi-absence de la famille parmi les prolétaires, et la prostitution publique.
The bourgeois family will vanish as a matter of course when its complement vanishes, and both will vanish with the vanishing of capital. La famille bourgeoise s'évanouit comme une question de cours de son corollaire, et l'autre disparaissent avec la disparition du capital.
Do you charge us with wanting to stop the exploitation of children by their parents? Avez-vous nous faire payer de vouloir abolir l'exploitation des enfants par leurs parents? To this crime we plead guilty. Pour ce crime, nous plaider coupable.
But, you say, we destroy the most hallowed of relations, when we replace home education by social. Mais, dites-vous, nous détruisons la plus sacrée des relations, quand on remplace l'enseignement à domicile par le social.
And your education! Et votre éducation! Is not that also social, and determined by the social conditions under which you educate, by the intervention direct or indirect, of society, by means of schools, etc.? N'est-ce pas aussi sociale, et déterminé par les conditions sociales dans lesquelles vous éduquer, par l'intervention directe ou indirecte, de la société, par le biais des écoles, etc? The Communists have not intended the intervention of society in education; they do but seek to alter the character of that intervention, and to rescue education from the influence of the ruling class. Les communistes n'ont pas l'intention de l'intervention de la société en matière d'éducation, ils ne mais cherchent à modifier le caractère de cette intervention, et pour sauver l'éducation de l'influence de la classe dirigeante.
The bourgeois claptrap about the family and education, about the hallowed correlation of parents and child, becomes all the more disgusting, the more, by the action of Modern Industry, all the family ties among the proletarians are torn asunder, and their children transformed into simple articles of commerce and instruments of labor. Le baratin bourgeoises sur la famille et l'éducation, sur la corrélation sanctifié des parents et des enfants, devient d'autant plus dégoûtant dans, plus, par l'action de l'Industrie moderne, tous les liens familiaux parmi les prolétaires sont déchirées, et transforme les enfants articles simples de commerce et d'instruments de travail.
But you Communists would introduce community of women, screams the bourgeoisie in chorus. Mais vous voulez introduire la communauté des communistes des femmes, des cris de la bourgeoisie en chœur.
The bourgeois sees his wife a mere instrument of production. Pour le bourgeois, sa femme un simple instrument de production. He hears that the instruments of production are to be exploited in common, and, naturally, can come to no other conclusion that the lot of being common to all will likewise fall to the women. Il entend dire que les instruments de production doivent être exploités en commun, et, naturellement, peut venir à aucune autre conclusion que le lot d'être communes à tous seront également tomber à des femmes.
He has not even a suspicion that the real point aimed at is to do away with the status of women as mere instruments of production. Il n'a même pas un soupçon que le véritable point de visée est de faire disparaître le statut des femmes comme de simples instruments de production.
For the rest, nothing is more ridiculous than the virtuous indignation of our bourgeois at the community of women which, they pretend, is to be openly and officially established by the Communists. Pour le reste, rien n'est plus ridicule que l'indignation vertueuse de nos bourgeois la communauté des femmes qui, ils font semblant, c'est d'être ouvertement et officiellement mis en place par les communistes. The Communists have no need to introduce free love; it has existed almost from time immemorial. Les communistes n'ont pas besoin d'introduire l'amour libre, il a existé presque depuis des temps immémoriaux.
Our bourgeois, not content with having wives and daughters of their proletarians at their disposal, not to speak of common prostitutes, take the greatest pleasure in seducing each other's wives. Nos bourgeois, non contents d'avoir épouses et filles des prolétaires à leur disposition, pour ne pas parler de la prostitution, de prendre le plus grand plaisir à séduire les uns des autres épouses. (Ah, those were the days!) (Ah, c'était le bon temps!)
Bourgeois marriage is, in reality, a system of wives in common and thus, at the most, what the Communists might possibly be reproached with is that they desire to introduce, in substitution for a hypocritically concealed, an openly legalized system of free love. Le mariage bourgeois est, en réalité, un système de femmes en commun et donc, tout au plus, ce que les communistes pourraient éventuellement être reproché, c'est qu'ils le désir d'introduire, en remplacement d'un hypocritement dissimulé, un système ouvertement la légalisation de l'amour libre. For the rest, it is self-evident that the abolition of the present system of production must bring with it the abolition of free love springing from that system, ie, of prostitution both public and private. Pour le reste, il est évident que l'abolition de l'actuel système de production doit apporter avec elle l'abolition de l'amour libre jaillissant de ce système, c'est à dire de la prostitution à la fois public et privé.
The Communists are further reproached with desiring to abolish countries and nationality. Les communistes sont encore reproché de vouloir abolir la patrie, la nationalité.
The workers have no country. Les ouvriers n'ont pas de patrie. We cannot take from them what they have not got. Nous ne pouvons pas leur prendre ce qu'ils n'ont pas. Since the proletariat must first of all acquire political supremacy, must rise to be the leading class of the nation, must constitute itself the nation, it is, so far, itself national, though not in the bourgeois sense of the word. Comme le prolétariat doit tout d'abord conquérir le pouvoir politique, doit s'élever à la classe dirigeante de la nation, doivent se constituer en la nation, il est, jusqu'ici, se national, quoique nullement au sens bourgeois du mot.
National differences and antagonism between peoples are daily more and more vanishing, owing to the development of the bourgeoisie, to freedom of commerce, to the world market, to uniformity in the mode of production and in the conditions of life corresponding thereto. Les différences nationales et les antagonismes entre les peuples sont chaque jour plus et plus de fuite, grâce au développement de la bourgeoisie, à la liberté de commerce, sur le marché mondial, l'uniformité dans le mode de production et dans les conditions de vie y correspondant.
The supremacy of the proletariat will cause them to vanish still faster. La suprématie du prolétariat les fera disparaître plus encore. United action of the leading civilized countries at least is one of the first conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat. Action unie des pays civilisés tout au moins l'une des premières conditions pour l'émancipation du prolétariat.
In proportion as the exploitation of one individual by another will also be put an end to, the exploitation of one nation by another will also be put an end to. A mesure que l'exploitation d'un individu par un autre sera également mis un terme à l'exploitation d'une nation par une autre sera également mis un terme à. In proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end. A mesure que l'antagonisme entre les classes au sein de la nation disparaît, l'hostilité d'une nation à l'autre viendra à sa fin.
The charges against communism made from a religious, a philosophical and, generally, from an ideological standpoint, are not deserving of serious examination. Les accusations portées contre le communisme a fait à partir d'un religieux, philosophiques et, plus généralement, du point de vue idéologique, ne sont pas dignes d'un examen sérieux.
Does it require deep intuition to comprehend that man's ideas, views, and conception, in one word, man's consciousness, changes with every change in the conditions of his material existence, in his social relations and in his social life? Est-il besoin grande perspicacité pour comprendre que les idées de l'homme, les vues, et la conception, en un mot, conscience de l'homme, changent avec tout changement dans les conditions de son existence matérielle, dans ses relations sociales et dans sa vie sociale?
What else does the history of ideas prove, than that intellectual production changes its character in proportion as material production is changed? Que fait d'autre l'histoire des idées prouver, que la production intellectuelle de son caractère à mesure que la production matérielle est changé? The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class. Les idées dominantes d'une époque n'ont jamais été les idées de sa classe dirigeante.
When people speak of the ideas that revolutionize society, they do but express that fact that within the old society the elements of a new one have been created, and that the dissolution of the old ideas keeps even pace with the dissolution of the old conditions of existence. Lorsque les gens parlent des idées qui révolutionnent la société, on énonce seulement ce fait que dans l'ancienne société les éléments d'un nouveau ont été créés, et que la dissolution des vieilles idées marche de pair avec la dissolution des anciennes conditions d' l'existence.
When the ancient world was in its last throes, the ancient religions were overcome by Christianity. Quand le monde antique était à son agonie, les religions antiques ont été surmontés par le christianisme. When Christian ideas succumbed in the eighteenth century to rationalist ideas, feudal society fought its death battle with the then revolutionary bourgeoisie. Quand les idées chrétiennes cédèrent la place aux idées du XVIIIe siècle rationaliste, la société féodale livrait sa dernière bataille de mort avec la bourgeoisie, alors révolutionnaire. The ideas of religious liberty and freedom of conscience merely gave expression to the sway of free competition within the domain of knowledge. Les idées de liberté religieuse et la liberté de conscience ne fait que donner expression à la domination de la libre concurrence dans le domaine de la connaissance.
"Undoubtedly," it will be said, "religious, moral, philosophical, and juridicial ideas have been modified in the course of historical development. But religion, morality, philosophy, political science, and law, constantly survived this change." «Sans doute», il sera dit, «les idées religieuses, morales, philosophiques et Juridiques ont été modifiés au cours du développement historique. Mais la religion, la morale, philosophie, science politique et droit, toujours à travers ces changements."
"There are, besides, eternal truths, such as Freedom, Justice, etc., that are common to all states of society. But communism abolishes eternal truths, it abolishes all religion, and all morality, instead of constituting them on a new basis; it therefore acts in contradiction to all past historical experience." «Il ya, en outre, des vérités éternelles, telles que Liberté, Justice, etc, qui sont communes à tous les Etats de la société. Mais le communisme abolit les vérités éternelles, il abolit toute religion, et toute morale, au lieu d'entre eux constituant une nouvelle base , elle agit donc en contradiction avec toute l'expérience passée historique ».
What does this accusation reduce itself to? Qu'est-ce que cette accusation se réduire à? The history of all past society has consisted in the development of class antagonisms, antagonisms that assumed different forms at different epochs. L'histoire de toute société passée a consisté dans le développement des antagonismes de classes, antagonismes qui a pris des formes différentes à des époques différentes.
But whatever form they may have taken, one fact is common to all past ages, viz., the exploitation of one part of society by the other. Mais quelle que soit la forme qu'ils ont prise, un fait est commun à tous les âges passés, à savoir., L'exploitation d'une partie de la société par l'autre. No wonder, then, that the social consciousness of past ages, despite all the multiplicity and variety it displays, moves within certain common forms, or general ideas, which cannot completely vanish except with the total disappearance of class antagonisms. Pas étonnant, alors, que la conscience sociale des siècles passés, malgré toute la multiplicité et la variété qu'elle affiche, se déplace au sein de certaines formes communes, ou des idées générales, qui ne peut pas disparaître complètement, sauf avec la disparition totale des antagonismes de classe.
The communist revolution is the most radical rupture with traditional relations; no wonder that its development involved the most radical rupture with traditional ideas. La révolution communiste est la rupture la plus radicale avec les relations traditionnelles; pas étonnant que son développement impliqués la rupture la plus radicale avec les idées traditionnelles.
But let us have done with the bourgeois objections to communism. Mais laissez-nous l'ont fait avec les objections bourgeoise au communisme.
We have seen above that the first step in the revolution by the working class is to raise the proletariat to the position of ruling class to win the battle of democracy. Nous avons vu plus haut que la première étape dans la révolution par la classe ouvrière est d'élever le prolétariat à la position de la classe dirigeante pour gagner la bataille de la démocratie.
The proletariat will use its political supremacy to wrest, by degree, all capital from the bourgeoisie, to centralize all instruments of production in the hands of the state, ie, of the proletariat organized as the ruling class; and to increase the total productive forces as rapidly as possible. Le prolétariat se servira de sa suprématie politique pour arracher petit à petit tout le capital à la bourgeoisie, pour centraliser tous les instruments de production entre les mains de l'Etat, c'est à dire du prolétariat organisé en classe dominante, et d'augmenter la somme des forces productives aussi rapidement que possible.
Of course, in the beginning, this cannot be effected except by means of despotic inroads on the rights of property, and on the conditions of bourgeois production; by means of measures, therefore, which appear economically insufficient and untenable, but which, in the course of the movement, outstrip themselves, necessitate further inroads upon the old social order, and are unavoidable as a means of entirely revolutionizing the mode of production. Bien sûr, au début, cela ne peut être effectuée que par des moyens de violation despotique du droit de propriété, et sur les conditions de la production bourgeoise, au moyen de mesures, par conséquent, qui apparaissent économiquement insuffisantes et insoutenables, mais qui, dans le cours du mouvement, se dépassent, nécessitera de nouvelles percées sur le vieil ordre social, et sont inévitables comme un moyen de révolutionner complètement le mode de production.
These measures will, of course, be different in different countries. Ces mesures, bien sûr, être différentes selon les pays.
Nevertheless, in most advanced countries, the following will be pretty generally applicable. Néanmoins, dans la plupart des pays avancés, les suivantes seront assez généralement applicables.
1. 1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes. Abolition de la propriété foncière et l'application de tous les loyers des terres à des fins publiques.
2. 2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax. Un impôt sur le revenu lourds progressive ou graduelle.
3. 3. Abolition of all rights of inheritance. Abolition de tous les droits de succession.
4. 4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels. La confiscation des biens de tous les émigrés et rebelles.
5. 5. Centralization of credit in the banks of the state, by means of a national bank with state capital and an exclusive monopoly. Centralisation du crédit dans les banques de l'Etat, par le biais d'une banque nationale à capitaux d'État et un monopole exclusif.
6. 6. Centralization of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the state. La centralisation des moyens de communication et de transport dans les mains de l'Etat.
7. 7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the state; the bringing into cultivation of waste lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan. Extension des usines et des instruments de production détenue par l'Etat, la mise en culture des terres en friche, et l'amélioration du sol en général, conformément à un plan commun.
8. 8. Equal obligation of all to work. Obligation de l'égalité de tous au travail. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture. Organisation d'armées industrielles, particulièrement pour l'agriculture.
9. 9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of all the distinction between town and country by a more equable distribution of the populace over the country. Combinaison de l'agriculture avec les industries manufacturières, l'abolition progressive de toute la distinction entre ville et campagne par une répartition plus équitable des fruits de la population du pays.
10. 10. Free education for all children in public schools. L'éducation gratuite pour tous les enfants dans les écoles publiques. Abolition of children's factory labor in its present form. Abolition du travail en usine pour enfants dans sa forme actuelle. Combination of education with industrial production, etc. Combinaison de l'éducation avec la production industrielle, etc
When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Lorsque, dans le cours du développement, les distinctions de classe ont disparu, et toute la production a été concentrée dans les mains d'une vaste association de toute la nation, le pouvoir public perd son caractère politique. Political power, properly so called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. Le pouvoir politique proprement dite, est le pouvoir organisé d'une classe pour l'oppression d'une autre. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the force of circumstances, to organize itself as a class; if, by means of a revolution, it makes itself the ruling class, and, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class. Si le prolétariat dans sa lutte contre la bourgeoisie est obligée, par la force des circonstances, de s'organiser en tant que classe, si, par le biais d'une révolution, il se fait la classe dirigeante, et, comme tels, balaye par la force les anciennes conditions de production, il sera alors, avec ces conditions, ont balayé les conditions pour l'existence d'antagonismes de classe et de classes en général, et aurait ainsi aboli son propre domination comme classe.
In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all. En lieu et place de l'ancienne société bourgeoise, avec ses classes et ses antagonismes de classe, nous aurons une association où le libre développement de chacun est la condition du libre développement de tous.
III -- SOCIALIST AND COMMUNIST LITERATURE III - SOCIALISTE ET littérature communiste
1. 1. REACTIONARY SOCIALISM Socialisme réactionnaire
a. a. Feudal Socialism Socialisme féodal
Owing to their historical position, it became the vocation of the aristocracies of France and England to write pamphlets against modern bourgeois society. Grâce à leur position historique, il est devenu la vocation de l'aristocratie de la France et l'Angleterre pour écrire des pamphlets contre la société bourgeoise moderne. In the French Revolution of July 1830, and in the English reform agitation, these aristocracies again succumbed to the hateful upstart. Dans la Révolution française de Juillet 1830, et dans l'agitation de réforme anglais, ces aristocraties nouveau succombé à l'arriviste haineux. Thenceforth, a serious political struggle was altogether out of the question. Dès lors, une lutte politique sérieuse a été tout à fait hors de question. A literary battle alone remained possible. Une bataille littéraire, resté seul possible. But even in the domain of literature, the old cries of the restoration period had become impossible. [1] Mais même dans le domaine de la littérature, les cris anciens de la période de la restauration était devenue impossible. [1]
In order to arouse sympathy, the aristocracy was obliged to lose sight, apparently, of its own interests, and to formulate its indictment against the bourgeoisie in the interest of the exploited working class alone. Afin d'éveiller la sympathie, l'aristocratie a été obligé de perdre de vue, apparemment, de ses propres intérêts, et de formuler son réquisitoire contre la bourgeoisie dans l'intérêt de la classe ouvrière exploitée seul. Thus, the aristocracy took their revenge by singing lampoons on their new masters and whispering in his ears sinister prophesies of coming catastrophe. Ainsi, l'aristocratie ont pris leur revanche en chantant pamphlets sur leurs nouveaux maîtres et murmurant à son oreille sinistres prophéties de la catastrophe à venir.
In this way arose feudal socialism: half lamentation, half lampoon; half an echo of the past, half menace of the future; at times, by its bitter, witty and incisive criticism, striking the bourgeoisie to the very heart's core, but always ludicrous in its effect, through total incapacity to comprehend the march of modern history. De cette façon, née le socialisme féodal: lamentations moitié, la moitié pamphlet; une demi-écho du passé, la menace de la moitié de l'avenir; à certains moments, par son amertume, de la critique spirituel et incisif, frappant à la bourgeoisie de base du cœur, mais toujours ridicule dans ses effets, grâce à une incapacité totale à comprendre le mois de mars de l'histoire moderne.
The aristocracy, in order to rally the people to them, waved the proletarian alms-bag in front for a banner. L'aristocratie, afin de rallier le peuple à eux, brandi le prolétariat aumônière en face d'une bannière. But the people, so often as it joined them, saw on their hindquarters the old feudal coats of arms, and deserted with loud and irreverent laughter. Mais le peuple, aussi souvent qu'il les rejoint, vu sur leur arrière-train du vieux manteaux féodal de bras, et déserte avec des rires bruyants et irrévérencieux.
One section of the French Legitimists and "Young England" exhibited this spectacle: Une section des légitimistes français et «Jeune Angleterre» a exposé ce spectacle:
In pointing out that their mode of exploitation was different to that of the bourgeoisie, the feudalists forget that they exploited under circumstances and conditions that were quite different and that are now antiquated. En soulignant que leur mode d'exploitation était différente de celle de la bourgeoisie, les féodaux oublier qu'ils exploités dans des circonstances et des conditions qui étaient très différentes et qui sont maintenant désuètes. In showing that, under their rule, the modern proletariat never existed, they forget that the modern bourgeoisie is the necessary offspring of their own form of society. En montrant que, sous leur domination, le prolétariat moderne n'a jamais existé, ils oublient que la bourgeoisie moderne est le fruit nécessaire de leur propre forme de société.
For the rest, so little do they conceal the reactionary character of their criticism that their chief accusation against the bourgeois amounts to this: that under the bourgeois regime a class is being developed which is destined to cut up, root and branch, the old order of society. Pour le reste, si peu qu'ils cachent ne le caractère réactionnaire de leur critique que leur principale accusation contre les montants de cette bourgeoise: que sous le régime d'une classe bourgeoise est développé qui est destiné à couper, racines et branches, l'ordre ancien de la société.
What they upbraid the bourgeoisie with is not so much that it creates a proletariat as that it creates a _revolutionary_ proletariat. Ce qu'ils reprochent la bourgeoisie n'est pas tant que cela crée un prolétariat en tant qu'il crée un prolétariat _revolutionary_.
In political practice, therefore, they join in all corrective measures against the working class; and in ordinary life, despite their high falutin' phrases, they stoop to pick up the golden apples dropped from the tree of industry, and to barter truth, love, and honor, for traffic in wool, beetroot-sugar, and potato spirits. [2] Dans la pratique politique, par conséquent, ils se joignent à toutes les mesures correctives contre la classe ouvrière, et dans la vie ordinaire, malgré leur haute des phrases falutin », ils baisser pour ramasser les pommes d'or a chuté de l'arbre de l'industrie, et de troquer la vérité, l'amour , et l'honneur, pour les esprits de la circulation dans la laine, la betterave à sucre, pomme de terre. [2]
As the parson has ever gone hand in hand with the landlord, so has clerical socialism with feudal socialism. Comme le pasteur n'est jamais allé de pair avec le locateur, a donc le socialisme clérical avec le socialisme féodal.
Nothing is easier than to give Christian asceticism a socialist tinge. Rien n'est plus facile que de donner l'ascèse chrétienne une teinte socialiste. Has not Christianity declaimed against private property, against marriage, against the state? N'est-ce pas le christianisme déclamé contre la propriété privée, le mariage, contre l'Etat? Has it not preached in the place of these, charity and poverty, celibacy and mortification of the flesh, monastic life and Mother Church? N'at-il pas prêché dans le lieu de ces charité et de pauvreté, le célibat et la mortification de la chair, la vie monastique et l'Eglise? Christian socialism is but the holy water with which the priest consecrates the heart-burnings of the aristocrat. Socialisme chrétien n'est que l'eau bénite avec laquelle le prêtre consacre le dépit de l'aristocrate.
b. b. Petty-Bourgeois Socialism Socialisme petit-bourgeois
The feudal aristocracy was not the only class that was ruined by the bourgeoisie, not the only class whose conditions of existence pined and perished in the atmosphere of modern bourgeois society. L'aristocratie féodale ne fut pas la seule classe qui a été ruiné par la bourgeoisie, et non pas la seule classe dont les conditions d'existence se languissait et périt dans l'atmosphère de la société bourgeoise moderne. The medieval burgesses and the small peasant proprietors were the precursors of the modern bourgeoisie. Les bourgeois médiévaux et les propriétaires de petits paysans ont été les précurseurs de la bourgeoisie moderne. In those countries which are but little developed, industrially and commercially, these two classes still vegetate side by side with the rising bourgeoisie. Dans les pays qui sont peu développés, industriellement et commercialement, ces deux classes reste végètent côte à côte avec la bourgeoisie montante.
In countries where modern civilization has become fully developed, a new class of petty bourgeois has been formed, fluctuating between proletariat and bourgeoisie, and ever renewing itself a supplementary part of bourgeois society. Dans les pays où la civilisation moderne est devenue pleinement développé, une nouvelle classe de petits bourgeois a été formé, fluctuant entre prolétariat et bourgeoisie, et toujours renouveler elle-même une partie supplémentaire de la société bourgeoise. The individual members of this class, however, as being constantly hurled down into the proletariat by the action of competition, and, as Modern Industry develops, they even see the moment approaching when they will completely disappear as an independent section of modern society, to be replaced in manufactures, agriculture and commerce, by overlookers, bailiffs and shopmen. Les membres individuels de cette classe, cependant, comme étant constamment précipités dans le prolétariat par l'action de la concurrence, et, comme l'industrie moderne se développe, ils voient approcher le moment où ils disparaîtront complètement comme une section indépendante de la société moderne, à être remplacé dans l'industrie manufacturière, l'agriculture et du commerce, par contremaîtres, les huissiers et garçons de boutique.
In countries like France, where the peasants constitute far more than half of the population, it was natural that writers who sided with the proletariat against the bourgeoisie should use, in their criticism of the bourgeois regime, the standard of the peasant and petty bourgeois, and from the standpoint of these intermediate classes, should take up the cudgels for the working class. Dans des pays comme la France, où les paysans constituent beaucoup plus que la moitié de la population, il était naturel que des écrivains qui prirent le parti du prolétariat contre la bourgeoisie doit utiliser, dans leur critique du régime bourgeois, la norme du paysan et petit-bourgeois, et du point de vue de ces classes intermédiaires, devraient prendre fait et cause pour la classe ouvrière. Thus arose petty-bourgeois socialism. Ainsi naquit le socialisme petit-bourgeois. Sismondi was the head of this school, not only in France but also in England. Sismondi était à la tête de cette école, non seulement en France mais aussi en Angleterre.
This school of socialism dissected with great acuteness the contradictions in the conditions of modern production. Cette école du socialisme analysa avec beaucoup de sagacité les contradictions dans les conditions modernes de production. It laid bare the hypocritical apologies of economists. Il mit à nu les hypocrites apologies des économistes. It proved, incontrovertibly, the disastrous effects of machinery and division of labor; the concentration of capital and land in a few hands; overproduction and crises; it pointed out the inevitable ruin of the petty bourgeois and peasant, the misery of the proletariat, the anarchy in production, the crying inequalities in the distribution of wealth, the industrial war of extermination between nations, the dissolution of old moral bonds, of the old family relations, of the old nationalities. Il s'est avéré, irréfutable les effets meurtriers du machinisme et la division du travail, la concentration du capital et des terres en quelques mains; surproduction et les crises, la fatale décadence des petits bourgeois et des paysans, la misère du prolétariat, la anarchie dans la production, les inégalités qui crie dans la répartition des richesses, la guerre d'extermination industrielle des nations entre la dissolution des vieilles morales, des vieilles relations familiales, des vieilles nationalités.
In it positive aims, however, this form of socialism aspires either to restoring the old means of production and of exchange, and with them the old property relations, and the old society, or to cramping the modern means of production and of exchange within the framework of the old property relations that have been, and were bound to be, exploded by those means. Dans ce but positif, cependant, cette forme de socialisme entend rétablir les anciens moyens de production et d'échange, et avec eux l'ancien régime de propriété, et l'ancienne société, ou à des crampes les moyens modernes de production et d'échange au sein du cadre de l'ancien régime de propriété qui ont été, et étaient tenus d'être brisé, par ces moyens. In either case, it is both reactionary and Utopian. Dans les deux cas, il est à la fois réactionnaire et utopique.
Its last words are: corporate guilds for manufacture; patriarchal relations in agriculture. Ses derniers mots sont: les guildes d'entreprise pour la fabrication; les relations patriarcales dans l'agriculture.
Ultimately, when stubborn historical facts had dispersed all intoxicating effects of self-deception, this form of socialism ended in a miserable hangover. Finalement, quand têtue des faits historiques s'étaient dispersés tous les effets enivrants de l'auto-duperie, cette forme de socialisme s'est terminée en une gueule de bois misérable.
c. C. German or "True" Socialism En allemand ou en "vrai" socialisme
The socialist and communist literature of France, a literature that originated under the pressure of a bourgeoisie in power, and that was the expressions of the struggle against this power, was introduced into Germany at a time when the bourgeoisie in that country had just begun its contest with feudal absolutism. La littérature socialiste et communiste de la France, une littérature qui a pris naissance sous la pression d'une bourgeoisie au pouvoir, et qui était l'expression de la lutte contre ce pouvoir, a été introduite en Allemagne à une époque où la bourgeoisie dans ce pays venait de commencer son concours avec l'absolutisme féodal.
German philosophers, would-be philosophers, and beaux esprits (men of letters), eagerly seized on this literature, only forgetting that when these writings immigrated from France into Germany, French social conditions had not immigrated along with them. Philosophes allemands, aurait-être des philosophes, et beaux esprits (les hommes de lettres), saisi avec empressement de cette littérature, seulement oublier que lorsque ces écrits ont immigré de France en Allemagne, les conditions sociales françaises n'avaient pas émigré avec eux. In contact with German social conditions, this French literature lost all its immediate practical significance and assumed a purely literary aspect. En contact avec les conditions sociales allemandes, cette littérature française perdait toute signification pratique immédiate et prit un caractère purement littéraire. Thus, to the German philosophers of the eighteenth century, the demands of the first French Revolution were nothing more than the demands of "Practical Reason" in general, and the utterance of the will of the revolutionary French bourgeoisie signified, in their eyes, the laws of pure will, of will as it was bound to be, of true human will generally. Ainsi, pour les philosophes allemands du XVIIIe siècle, les exigences de la première Révolution française n'étaient rien de plus que les exigences de la «raison pratique» en général, et l'énoncé de la volonté de la bourgeoisie révolutionnaire française signifié, à leurs yeux, le lois de la pure volonté de volonté comme elle devait être, d'humains seront généralement vraie.
The work of the German literati consisted solely in bringing the new French ideas into harmony with their ancient philosophical conscience, or rather, in annexing the French ideas without deserting their own philosophic point of view. Le travail de l'littérateurs allemands consistait seulement à apporter de nouvelles idées françaises en harmonie avec leur conscience philosophique antique, ou plutôt, en annexant les idées françaises, sans déserter leur propre point de vue philosophique.
This annexation took place in the same way in which a foreign language is appropriated, namely, by translation. Cette annexion a eu lieu la même manière dans laquelle une langue étrangère est approprié, à savoir, par la traduction.
It is well known how the monks wrote silly lives of Catholic saints _over_ the manuscripts on which the classical works of ancient heathendom had been written. Il est bien connu comment les moines écrit des vies de saints catholiques stupides _over_ les manuscrits sur lesquels les œuvres classiques du paganisme antique avait été écrite. The German literati reversed this process with the profane French literature. Les littérateurs allemands inversé ce processus avec la littérature profane française. They wrote their philosophical nonsense beneath the French original. Ils ont écrit leurs bêtises philosophiques sous l'original français. For instance, beneath the French criticism of the economic functions of money, they wrote "alienation of humanity", and beneath the French criticism of the bourgeois state they wrote "dethronement of the category of the general", and so forth. Par exemple, sous la critique française des fonctions économiques de l'argent, ils ont écrit «l'aliénation de l'humanité», et sous la critique française de l'Etat bourgeois ils ont écrit «détrônement de la catégorie du général", et ainsi de suite.
The introduction of these philosophical phrases at the back of the French historical criticisms, they dubbed "Philosophy of Action", "True Socialism", "German Science of Socialism", "Philosophical Foundation of Socialism", and so on. L'introduction de ces phrases philosophiques à l'arrière de la critique historique française, qu'ils ont appelé «philosophie de l'action», «socialisme vrai», «science allemande du socialisme», «fondement philosophique du socialisme», et ainsi de suite.
The French socialist and communist literature was thus completely emasculated. La littérature socialiste et communiste française est donc totalement émasculée. And, since it ceased, in the hands of the German, to express the struggle of one class with the other, he felt conscious of having overcome "French one-sidedness" and of representing, not true requirements, but the requirements of truth; not the interests of the proletariat, but the interests of human nature, of man in general, who belongs to no class, has no reality, who exists only in the misty realm of philosophical fantasy. Et, depuis qu'il a cessé, dans les mains de l'Allemand, pour exprimer la lutte d'une classe à l'autre, il se sentait conscient d'avoir à surmonter "française partialité» et de représenter non pas des exigences vrai, mais les exigences de la vérité; non pas les intérêts du prolétariat, mais les intérêts de la nature humaine, l'homme en général, qui n'appartient à aucune classe, n'a pas de réalité, qui n'existe que dans le royaume brumeux de la fantaisie philosophique.
This German socialism, which took its schoolboy task so seriously and solemnly, and extolled its poor stock-in-trade in such a mountebank fashion, meanwhile gradually lost its pedantic innocence. Ce socialisme allemand, qui a pris sa tâche d'écolier autant de sérieux et solennel, et vanté ses mauvaises actions en échange de telle façon saltimbanque, quant à lui progressivement perdu son innocence pédantesque.
The fight of the Germans, and especially of the Prussian bourgeoisie, against feudal aristocracy and absolute monarchy, in other words, the liberal movement, became more earnest. La lutte des Allemands, et surtout de la bourgeoisie prussienne, contre l'aristocratie féodale et la monarchie absolue, en d'autres termes, le mouvement libéral, est devenu plus sérieux.
By this, the long-wished for opportunity was offered to "True" Socialism of confronting the political movement with the socialistic demands, of hurling the traditional anathemas against liberalism, against representative government, against bourgeois competition, bourgeois freedom of the press, bourgeois legislation, bourgeois liberty and equality, and of preaching to the masses that they had nothing to gain, and everything to lose, by this bourgeois movement. En cela, le long souhaité pour l'occasion a été offerte à "vrai" socialisme de confronter le mouvement politique avec les exigences socialistes, de précipiter les anathèmes traditionnels contre le libéralisme, contre le gouvernement représentatif, contre la concurrence bourgeoise, la liberté de la presse bourgeoise, la législation bourgeoise , la liberté bourgeoise et l'égalité, et de prêcher aux masses qu'elles n'avaient rien à gagner, et tout à perdre, par ce mouvement bourgeois. German socialism forgot, in the nick of time, that the French criticism, whose silly echo it was, presupposed the existence of modern bourgeois society, with its corresponding economic conditions of existence, and the political constitution adapted thereto, the very things whose attainment was the object of the pending struggle in Germany. Socialisme allemand oublié, dans l'entaille du temps, que la critique française, dont il était l'écho stupide, présupposait l'existence de la société bourgeoise moderne, avec ses correspondants les conditions économiques d'existence, et la constitution politique adaptée à cet effet, les choses mêmes dont la réalisation a été l'objet de la lutte en cours en Allemagne.
To the absolute governments, with their following of parsons, professors, country squires, and officials, it served as a welcome scarecrow against the threatening bourgeoisie. Pour les gouvernements absolus, avec leur cortège de prêtres, des professeurs, des hobereaux et des fonctionnaires, il a servi un accueil épouvantail contre la bourgeoisie menaçante.
It was a sweet finish, after the bitter pills of flogging and bullets, with which these same governments, just at that time, dosed the German working-class risings. C'était une finition douce, après la pilule amère de la flagellation et les balles, avec laquelle ces mêmes gouvernements, juste à ce moment-là, dosé l'ouvrier allemand soulèvements.
While this "True" Socialism thus served the government as a weapon for fighting the German bourgeoisie, it, at the same time, directly represented a reactionary interest, the interest of German philistines. Bien que ce "vrai" socialisme a donc servi le gouvernement comme une arme pour lutter contre la bourgeoisie allemande, elle, dans le même temps, directement représenté un intérêt réactionnaire, l'intérêt des philistins allemands. In Germany, the petty-bourgeois class, a relic of the sixteenth century, and since then constantly cropping up again under the various forms, is the real social basis of the existing state of things. En Allemagne, la classe petite-bourgeoise, une relique du XVIe siècle, et depuis lors, constamment surgissent à nouveau sous les diverses formes, est la vraie base sociale de l'état actuel des choses.
To preserve this class is to preserve the existing state of things in Germany. Afin de préserver cette classe est de préserver l'état de choses existant en Allemagne. The industrial and political supremacy of the bourgeoisie threatens it with certain destruction -- on the one hand, from the concentration of capital; on the other, from the rise of a revolutionary proletariat. "True" Socialism appeared to kill these two birds with one stone. It spread like an epidemic.
The robe of speculative cobwebs, embroidered with flowers of rhetoric, steeped in the dew of sickly sentiment, this transcendental robe in which the German Socialists wrapped their sorry "eternal truths", all skin and bone, served to wonderfully increase the sale of their goods amongst such a public. And on its part German socialism recognized, more and more, its own calling as the bombastic representative of the petty-bourgeois philistine.
It proclaimed the German nation to be the model nation, and the German petty philistine to be the typical man. To every villainous meanness of this model man, it gave a hidden, higher, socialistic interpretation, the exact contrary of its real character. It went to the extreme length of directly opposing the "brutally destructive" tendency of communism, and of proclaiming its supreme and impartial contempt of all class struggles. With very few exceptions, all the so-called socialist and communist publications that now (1847) circulate in Germany belong to the domain of this foul and enervating literature. [3]
2. 2. CONSERVATIVE OR BOURGEOIS SOCIALISM
A part of the bourgeoisie is desirous of redressing social grievances in order to secure the continued existence of bourgeois society.
To this section belong economists, philanthropists, humanitarians, improvers of the condition of the working class, organizers of charity, members of societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals, temperance fanatics, hole-and-corner reformers of every imaginable kind. This form of socialism has, moreover, been worked out into complete systems.
We may cite Proudhon's Philosophy of Poverty as an example of this form.
The socialistic bourgeois want all the advantages of modern social conditions without the struggles and dangers necessarily resulting therefrom. They desire the existing state of society, minus its revolutionary and disintegrating elements. They wish for a bourgeoisie without a proletariat. The bourgeoisie naturally conceives the world in which it is supreme to be the best; and bourgeois socialism develops this comfortable conception into various more or less complete systems. In requiring the proletariat to carry out such a system, and thereby to march straightaway into the social New Jerusalem, it but requires in reality that the proletariat should remain within the bounds of existing society, but should cast away all its hateful ideas concerning the bourgeoisie.
A second, and more practical, but less systematic, form of this socialism sought to depreciate every revolutionary movement in the eyes of the working class by showing that no mere political reform, but only a change in the material conditions of existence, in economical relations, could be of any advantage to them. By changes in the material conditions of existence, this form of socialism, however, by no means understands abolition of the bourgeois relations of production, an abolition that can be affected only by a revolution, but administrative reforms, based on the continued existence of these relations; reforms, therefore, that in no respect affect the relations between capital and labor, but, at the best, lessen the cost, and simplify the administrative work of bourgeois government.
Bourgeois socialism attains adequate expression when, and only when, it becomes a mere figure of speech.
Free trade: for the benefit of the working class. Protective duties: for the benefit of the working class. Prison reform: for the benefit of the working class. This is the last word and the only seriously meant word of bourgeois socialism.
It is summed up in the phrase: the bourgeois is a bourgeois -- for the benefit of the working class.
3. 3. CRITICAL-UTOPIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM
We do not here refer to that literature which, in every great modern revolution, has always given voice to the demands of the proletariat, such as the writings of Babeuf [4] and others.
The first direct attempts of the proletariat to attain its own ends, made in times of universal excitement, when feudal society was being overthrown, necessarily failed, owing to the then undeveloped state of the proletariat, as well as to the absence of the economic conditions for its emancipation, conditions that had yet to be produced, and could be produced by the impending bourgeois epoch alone. The revolutionary literature that accompanied these first movements of the proletariat had necessarily a reactionary character. It inculcated universal asceticism and social levelling in its crudest form.
The socialist and communist systems, properly so called, those of Saint-Simon [5] , Fourier [6] , Owen [7] , and others, spring into existence in the early undeveloped period, described above, of the struggle between proletariat and bourgeoisie (see Section 1. Bourgeois and Proletarians).
The founders of these systems see, indeed, the class antagonisms, as well as the action of the decomposing elements in the prevailing form of society. But the proletariat, as yet in its infancy, offers to them the spectacle of a class without any historical initiative or any independent political movement.
Since the development of class antagonism keeps even pace with the development of industry, the economic situation, as they find it, does not as yet offer to them the material conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat. They therefore search after a new social science, after new social laws, that are to create these conditions.
Historical action is to yield to their personal inventive action; historically created conditions of emancipation to fantastic ones; and the gradual, spontaneous class organization of the proletariat to an organization of society especially contrived by these inventors. Future history resolves itself, in their eyes, into the propaganda and the practical carrying out of their social plans.
In the formation of their plans, they are conscious of caring chiefly for the interests of the working class, as being the most suffering class. Only from the point of view of being the most suffering class does the proletariat exist for them.
The undeveloped state of the class struggle, as well as their own surroundings, causes Socialists of this kind to consider themselves far superior to all class antagonisms. They want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they habitually appeal to society at large, without the distinction of class; nay, by preference, to the ruling class. For how can people when once they understand their system, fail to see in it the best possible plan of the best possible state of society?
Hence, they reject all political, and especially all revolutionary action; they wish to attain their ends by peaceful means, necessarily doomed to failure, and by the force of example, to pave the way for the new social gospel.
Such fantastic pictures of future society, painted at a time when the proletariat is still in a very undeveloped state and has but a fantastic conception of its own position, correspond with the first instinctive yearnings of that class for a general reconstruction of society.
But these socialist and communist publications contain also a critical element. They attack every principle of existing society. Hence, they are full of the most valuable materials for the enlightenment of the working class. The practical measures proposed in them -- such as the abolition of the distinction between town and country, of the family, of the carrying on of industries for the account of private individuals, and of the wage system, the proclamation of social harmony, the conversion of the function of the state into a more superintendence of production -- all these proposals point solely to the disappearance of class antagonisms which were, at that time, only just cropping up, and which, in these publications, are recognized in their earliest indistinct and undefined forms only. These proposals, therefore, are of a purely utopian character.
The significance of critical-utopian socialism and communism bears an inverse relation to historical development. In proportion as the modern class struggle develops and takes definite shape, this fantastic standing apart from the contest, these fantastic attacks on it, lose all practical value and all theoretical justifications. Therefore, although the originators of these systems were, in many respects, revolutionary, their disciples have, in every case, formed mere reactionary sects. They hold fast by the original views of their masters, in opposition to the progressive historical development of the proletariat. They, therefore, endeavor, and that consistently, to deaden the class struggle and to reconcile the class antagonisms. They still dream of experimental realization of their social utopias, of founding isolated phalansteres , of establishing "Home Colonies", or setting up a "Little Icaria" [8] -- pocket editions of the New Jerusalem -- and to realize all these castles in the air, they are compelled to appeal to the feelings and purses of the bourgeois. By degrees, they sink into the category of the reactionary conservative socialists depicted above, differing from these only by more systematic pedantry, and by their fanatical and superstitious belief in the miraculous effects of their social science.
They, therefore, violently oppose all political action on the part of the working class; such action, according to them, can only result from blind unbelief in the new gospel.
The Owenites in England, and the Fourierists in France, respectively, oppose the Chartists and the Reformistes.
FOOTNOTES NOTES
[1] NOTE by Engels to 1888 English edition: Not the English Restoration (1660-1689), but the French Restoration (1814-1830).
[2] NOTE by Engels to 1888 English edition: This applies chiefly to Germany, where the landed aristocracy and squirearchy have large portions of their estates cultivated for their own account by stewards, and are, moreover, extensive beetroot-sugar manufacturers and distillers of potato spirits. The wealthier british aristocracy are, as yet, rather above that; but they, too, know how to make up for declining rents by lending their names to floaters or more or less shady joint-stock companies.
[3] NOTE by Engels to 1888 German edition: The revolutionary storm of 1848 swept away this whole shabby tendency and cured its protagonists of the desire to dabble in socialism. The chief representative and classical type of this tendency is Mr Karl Gruen.
[4] Francois Noel Babeuf (1760-1797): French political agitator; plotted unsuccessfully to destroy the Directory in revolutionary France and established a communistic system.
[5] Comte de Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy (1760-1825): French social philosopher; generally regarded as founder of French socialism. He thought society should be reorganized along industrial lines and that scientists should be the new spiritual leaders. His most important work is _Nouveau_Christianisme_ (1825).
[6] Charles Fourier (1772-1837): French social reformer; propounded a system of self-sufficient cooperatives known as Fourierism, especially in his work _Le_Nouveau_Monde_industriel_ (1829-30)
[7] Robert Owen (1771-1858): Welsh industrialist and social reformer. He formed a model industrial community at New Lanark, Scotland, and pioneered cooperative societies. His books include _New_View_Of_Society_ (1813).
[8] NOTE by Engels to 1888 English edition: "Home Colonies" were what Owen called his communist model societies. _Phalansteres_ were socialist colonies on the plan of Charles Fourier; Icaria was the name given by Caber to his utopia and, later on, to his American communist colony.
IV -- POSITION OF THE COMMUNISTS IN RELATION TO
THE VARIOUS EXISTING OPPOSITION PARTIES
Section II has made clear the relations of the Communists to the existing working-class parties, such as the Chartists in England and the Agrarian Reformers in America.
The Communists fight for the attainment of the immediate aims, for the enforcement of the momentary interests of the working class; but in the movement of the present, they also represent and take care of the future of that movement. In France, the Communists ally with the Social Democrats * against the conservative and radical bourgeoisie, reserving, however, the right to take up a critical position in regard to phases and illusions traditionally handed down from the Great Revolution.
In Switzerland, they support the Radicals, without losing sight of the fact that this party consists of antagonistic elements, partly of Democratic Socialists, in the French sense, partly of radical bourgeois.
In Poland, they support the party that insists on an agrarian revolution as the prime condition for national emancipation, that party which fomented the insurrection of Krakow in 1846.
In Germany, they fight with the bourgeoisie whenever it acts in a revolutionary way, against the absolute monarchy, the feudal squirearchy, and the petty-bourgeoisie.
But they never cease, for a single instant, to instill into the working class the clearest possible recognition of the hostile antagonism between bourgeoisie and proletariat, in order that the German workers may straightway use, as so many weapons against the bourgeoisie, the social and political conditions that the bourgeoisie must necessarily introduce along with its supremacy, and in order that, after the fall of the reactionary classes in Germany, the fight against the bourgeoisie itself may immediately begin.
The Communists turn their attention chiefly to Germany, because that country is on the eve of a bourgeois revolution that is bound to be carried out under more advanced conditions of European civilization and with a much more developed proletariat than that of England was in the seventeenth, and France in the eighteenth century, and because the bourgeois revolution in Germany will be but the prelude to an immediately following proletarian revolution.
In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things.
In all these movements, they bring to the front, as the leading question in each, the property question, no matter what its degree of development at the time.
Finally, they labor everywhere for the union and agreement of the democratic parties of all countries.
The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.
Proletarians of all countries, unite!
FOOTNOTES NOTES
* NOTE by Engels to 1888 English edition: The party then represented in Parliament by Ledru-Rollin, in literature by Louis Blanc (1811-82), in the daily press by the Reforme . The name of Social-Democracy signifies, with these its inventors, a section of the Democratic or Republican Party more or less tinged with socialism.
PREFACE TO 1872 GERMAN EDITION
The Communist League, an international association of workers, which could of course be only a secret one, under conditions obtaining at the time, commissioned us, the undersigned, at the Congress held in London in November 1847, to write for publication a detailed theoretical and practical programme for the Party. Such was the origin of the following Manifesto, the manuscript of which travelled to London to be printed a few weeks before the February Revolution. First published in German, it has been republished in that language in at least twelve different editions in Germany, England, and America. It was published in English for the first time in 1850 in the _Red Republican_, London, translated by Miss Helen Macfarlane, and in 1871 in at least three different translations in America. The french version first appeared in Paris shortly before the June insurrection of 1848, and recently in _Le Socialiste_ of New York. A new translation is in the course of preparation. A Polish version appeared in London shortly after it was first published in Germany. A Russian translation was published in Geneva in the 'sixties. Into Danish, too, it was translated shortly after its appearance.
However much that state of things may have altered during the last twenty-five years, the general principles laid down in the Manifesto are, on the whole, as correct today as ever. Here and there, some detail might be improved. The practical application of the principles will depend, as the Manifesto itself states, everywhere and at all times, on the historical conditions for the time being existing, and, for that reason, no special stress is laid on the revolutionary measures proposed at the end of Section II. That passage would, in many respects, be very differently worded today. In view of the gigantic strides of Modern Industry since 1848, and of the accompanying improved and extended organization of the working class, in view of the practical experience gained, first in the February Revolution, and then, still more, in the Paris Commune, where the proletariat for the first time held political power for two whole months, this programme has in some details been antiquated. One thing especially was proved by the Commune, viz., that "the working class cannot simply lay hold of ready-made state machinery, and wield it for its own purposes." (See The Civil War in France: Address of the General Council of the International Working Men's Assocation , 1871, where this point is further developed.) Further, it is self-evident that the criticism of socialist literature is deficient in relation to the present time, because it comes down only to 1847; also that the remarks on the relation of the Communists to the various opposition parties (Section IV), although, in principle still correct, yet in practice are antiquated, because the political situation has been entirely changed, and the progress of history has swept from off the earth the greater portion of the political parties there enumerated.
But then, the Manifesto has become a historical document which we have no longer any right to alter. A subsequent edition may perhaps appear with an introduction bridging the gap from 1847 to the present day; but this reprint was too unexpected to leave us time for that.
KARL MARX
FREDERICK ENGELS
June 24, 1872
London Londres
PREFACE TO 1882 RUSSIAN EDITION
The first Russian edition of the Manifesto of the Communist Party, translated by Bakunin, was published early in the 'sixties by the printing office of the Kolokol. Then the West could see in it (the Russian edition of the Manifesto) only a literary curiosity. Such a view would be impossible today.
What a limited field the proletarian movement occupied at that time (December 1847) is most clearly shown by the last section: the position of the Communists in relation to the various opposition parties in various countries. Precisely Russia and the United States are missing here. It was the time when Russia constituted the last great reserve of all European reaction, when the United States absorbed the surplus proletarian forces of Europe through immigration. Both countries provided Europe with raw materials and were at the same time markets for the sale of its industrial products. Bother were, therefore, in one way of another, pillars of the existing European system.
How very different today. Precisely European immigration fitted North American for a gigantic agricultural production, whose competition is shaking the very foundations of European landed property -- large and small. At the same time, it enabled the United States to exploit its tremendous industrial resources with an energy and on a scale that must shortly break the industrial monopoly of Western Europe, and especially of England, existing up to now. Both circumstances react in a revolutionary manner upon America itself. Step by step, the small and middle land ownership of the farmers, the basis of the whole political constitution, is succumbing to the competition of giant farms; at the same time, a mass industrial proletariat and a fabulous concentration of capital funds are developing for the first time in the industrial regions.
And now Russia! During the Revolution of 1848-9, not only the European princes, but the European bourgeois as well, found their only salvation from the proletariat just beginning to awaken in Russian intervention. The Tsar was proclaimed the chief of European reaction. Today, he is a prisoner of war of the revolution in Gatchina, and Russia forms the vanguard of revolutionary action in Europe.
The Communist Manifesto had, as its object, the proclamation of the inevitable impending dissolution of modern bourgeois property. But in Russia we find, face-to-face with the rapidly flowering capitalist swindle and bourgeois property, just beginning to develop, more than half the land owned in common by the peasants. Now the question is: can the Russian obshchina, though greatly undermined, yet a form of primeaval common ownership of land, pass directly to the higher form of Communist common ownership? Or, on the contrary, must it first pass through the same process of dissolution such as constitutes the historical evolution of the West?
The only answer to that possible today is this: If the Russian Revolution becomes the signal for a proletarian revolution in the West, so that both complement each other, the present Russian common ownership of land may serve as the starting point for a communist development.
KARL MARX
FREDERICK ENGELS January 21, 1882
London Londres
PREFACE TO 1883 GERMAN EDITION
The preface to the present edition I must, alas, sign alone. Marx, the man to whom the whole working class class of Europe and America owes more than to any one else -- rests at Highgate Cemetary and over his grave the first first grass is already growing. Since his death [March 13, 1883], there can be even less thought of revising or supplementing the Manifesto. But I consider it all the more necessary again to state the following expressly:
The basic thought running through the Manifesto -- that economic production, and the structure of society of every historical epoch necessarily arising therefrom, constitute the foundation for the political and intellectual history of that epoch; that consequently (ever since the dissolution of the primaeval communal ownership of land) all history has been a history of class struggles, of struggles between exploited and exploiting, between dominated and dominating classes at various stages of social evolution; that this struggle, however, has now reached a stage where the exploited and oppressed class (the proletariat) can no longer emancipate itself from the class which exploits and oppresses it (the bourgeoisie), without at the same time forever freeing the whole of society from exploitation, oppression, class struggles -- this basic thought belongs soley and exclusively to Marx.
[ENGELS FOOTNOTE TO PARAGRAPH: "This proposition", I wrote in the preface to the English translation, "which, in my opinion, is destined to do for history what Darwin's theory has done for biology, we both of us, had been gradually approaching for some years before 1845. How far I had independently progressed towards it is best shown by my _Conditions of the Working Class in England_. But when I again met Marx at Brussels, in spring 1845, he had it already worked out and put it before me in terms almost as clear as those in which I have stated it here."]
I have already stated this many times; but precisely now is it necessary that it also stand in front of the Manifesto itself.
FREDERICK ENGELS
June 28, 1883
London Londres
PREFACE TO 1888 ENGLISH EDITION
The Manifesto was published as the platform of the Communist League, a working men's association, first exclusively German, later on international, and under the political conditions of the Continent before 1848, unavoidably a secret society. At a Congress of the League, held in November 1847, Marx and Engels were commissioned to prepare a complete theoretical and practical party programme. Drawn up in German, in January 1848, the manuscript was sent to the printer in London a few weeks before the French Revolution of February 24. A French translation was brought out in Paris shortly before the insurrection of June 1848. The first English translation, by Miss Helen Macfarlane, appeared in George Julian Harney's _Red Republican_, London, 1850. A Danish and a Polish edition had also been published.
The defeat of the Parisian insurrection of June 1848 -- the first great battle between proletariat and bourgeoisie -- drove again into the background, for a time, the social and political aspirations of the European working class. Thenceforth, the struggle for supremacy was, again, as it had been before the Revolution of February, solely between different sections of the propertied class; the working class was reduced to a fight for political elbow-room, and to the position of extreme wing of the middle-class Radicals. Wherever independent proletarian movements continued to show signs of life, they were ruthlessly hunted down. Thus the Prussian police hunted out the Central Board of the Communist League, then located in Cologne. The members were arrested and, after eighteen months' imprisonment, they were tried in October 1852. This selebrated "Cologne Communist Trial" lasted from October 4 till November 12; seven of the prisoners were sentenced to terms of imprisonment in a fortress, varying from three to six years. Immediately after the sentence, the League was formlly dissolved by the remaining members. As to the Manifesto, it seemed henceforth doomed to oblivion.
When the European workers had recovered sufficient strength for another attack on the ruling classes, the International Working Men's Association sprang up. But this association, formed with the express aim of welding into one body the whole militant proletariat of Europe and America, could not at once proclaim the principles laid down in the Manifesto. The International was bound to have a programme broad enough to be acceptable to the English trade unions, to the followers of Proudhon in France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain, and to the Lassalleans in Germany.
[ENGEL'S FOOTNOTE: Lassalle personally, to us, always acknowledged himself to be a disciple of Marx, and, as such, stood on the ground of the Manifesto. But in his first public agitation, 1862-1864, he did not go beyond demanding co-operative worhsops supported by state credit.]
Marx, who drew up this programme to the satisfaction of all parties, entirely trusted to the intellectual development of the working class, which was sure to result from combined action and mutual discussion. The very events and vicissitudes in the struggle against capital, the defeats even more than the victories, could not help bringing home to men's minds the insufficiency of their various favorite nostrums, and preparing the way for a more complete insight into the true conditions for working-class emancipation. And Marx was right. The International, on its breaking in 1874, left the workers quite different men from what it found them in 1864. Proudhonism in France, Lassalleanism in Germany, were dying out, and even the conservative English trade unions, though most of them had long since severed their connection with the International, were gradually advancing towards that point at which, last year at Swansea, their president could say in their name: "Continental socialism has lost its terror for us." In fact, the principles of the Manifesto had made considerable headway among the working men of all countries.
The Manifesto itself came thus to the front again. Since 1850, the German text had been reprinted several times in Switzerland, England, and America. In 1872, it was translated into English in New York, where the translation was published in _Woorhull and Claflin's Weekly_. From this English version, a French one was made in _Le Socialiste_ of New York. Since then, at least two more English translations, moer or less mutilated, have been brought out in America, and one of them has been reprinted in England. The first Russian translation, made by Bakunin, was published at Herzen's Kolokol office in Geneva, about 1863; a second one, by the heroic Vera Zasulich, also in Geneva, in 1882. A new Danish edition is to be found in _Socialdemokratisk Bibliothek_, Copenhagen, 1885; a fresh French translation in _Le Socialiste_, Paris, 1886. From this latter, a Spanish version was prepared and published in Madrid, 1886. The German reprints are not to be counted; there have been twelve altogether at the least. An Armenian translation, which was to be published in Constantinople some months ago, did not see the light, I am told, because the publisher was afraid of bringing out a book with the name of Marx on it, while the translator declined to call it his own production. Of further translations into other languages I have heard but had not seen. Thus the history of the Manifesto reflects the history of the modern working-class movement; at present, it is doubtless the most wide spread, the most international production of all socialist literature, the common platform acknowledged by millions of working men from Siberia to California.
Yet, when it was written, we could not have called it a _socialist_ manifesto. By Socialists, in 1847, were understood, on the one hand the adherents of the various Utopian systems: Owenites in England, Fourierists in France, both of them already reduced to the position of mere sects, and gradually dying out; on the other hand, the most multifarious social quacks who, by all manner of tinkering, professed to redress, without any danger to capital and profit, all sorts of social grievances, in both cases men outside the working-class movement, and looking rather to the "educated" classes for support. Whatever portion of the working class had become convinced of the insufficiency of mere political revolutions, and had proclaimed the necessity of total social change, called itself Communist. It was a crude, rough-hewn, purely instinctive sort of communism; still, it touched the cardinal point and was powerful enough amongst the working class to produce the Utopian communism of Cabet in France, and of Weitling in Germany. Thus, in 1847, socialism was a middle-class movement, communism a working-class movement. Socialism was, on the Continent at least, "respectable"; communism was the very opposite. And as our notion, from the very beginning, was that "the emancipation of the workers must be the act of the working class itself," there could be no doubt as to which of the two names we must take. Moreover, we have, ever since, been far from repudiating it.
The Manifesto being our joint production, I consider myself bound to state that the fundamental proposition which forms the nucleus belongs to Marx. That proposition is: That in every historical epoch, th prevailing mode of economic production and exchange, and the social organization necessarily following from it, form the basis upon which it is built up, and from that which alone can be explained the political and intellectual history of that epoch; that consequently the whole history of mankind (since the dissolution of primitive tribal society, holding land in common ownership) has been a history of class struggles, contests between exploiting and exploited, ruling and oppressed classes; That the history of these class struggles forms a series of evolutions in which, nowadays, a stage has been reached where the exploited and oppressed class -- the proletariat -- cannot attain its emancipation from the sway of the exploiting and ruling class -- the bourgeoisie -- without, at the same time, and once and for all, emancipating society at large from all exploitation, oppression, class distinction, and class struggles.
This proposition, which, in my opinion, is destined to do for history what Darwin's theory has done for biology, we both of us, had been gradually approaching for some years before 1845. How far I had independently progressed towards it is best shown by my _Conditions of the Working Class in England_. But when I again met Marx at Brussels, in spring 1845, he had it already worked out and put it before me in terms almost as clear as those in which I have stated it here.
From our joint preface to the German edition of 1872, I quote the following:
"However much that state of things may have altered during the last twenty-five years, the general principles laid down in the Manifesto are, on the whole, as correct today as ever. Here and there, some detail might be improved. The practical application of the principles will depend, as the Manifesto itself states, everywhere and at all times, on the historical conditions for the time being existing, and, for that reason, no special stress is laid on the revolutionary measures proposed at the end of Section II. That passage would, in many respects, be very differently worded today. In view of the gigantic strides of Modern Industry since 1848, and of the accompanying improved and extended organization of the working class, in view of the practical experience gained, first in the February Revolution, and then, still more, in the Paris Commune, where the proletariat for the first time held political power for two whole months, this programme has in some details been antiquated. One thing especially was proved by the Commune, viz., that "the working class cannot simply lay hold of ready-made state machinery, and wield it for its own purposes." (See _The Civil War in France: Address of the General Council of the International Working Men's Assocation_ 1871, where this point is further developed.) Further, it is self-evident that the criticism of socialist literature is deficient in relation to the present time, because it comes down only to 1847; also that the remarks on the relation of the Communists to the various opposition parties (Section IV), although, in principle still correct, yet in practice are antiquated, because the political situation has been entirely changed, and the progress of history has swept from off the Earth the greater portion of the political parties there enumerated.
"But then, the Manifesto has become a historical document which we have no longer any right to alter."
The present translation is by Mr Samuel Moore, the translator of the greater portion of Marx's _Capital_. We have revised it in common, and I have added a few notes explanatory of historical allusions.
FREDERICK ENGELS
January 30, 1888
London Londres
PREFACE TO 1890 GERMAN EDITION
Since [the 1883 German edition preface] was written, a new German edition of the Manifesto has again become necessary, and much has also happened to the Manifesto which should be recorded here.
A second Russian translation -- by Vera Zasulich -- appeared in Geneva in 1882; the preface to that edition was written by Marx and myself. Unfortunately, the original German manuscript has gone astray; I must therefore retranslate from the Russian which will in no way improve the text. It reads: On y lit:
"The first Russian edition of the Manifesto of the Communist Party, translated by Bakunin, was published early in the 'sixties by the printing office of the Kolokol. Then the West could see in it (the Russian edition of the Manifesto) only a literary curiosity. Such a view would be impossible today.
"What a limited field the proletarian movement occupied at that time (December 1847) is most clearly shown by the last section: the position of the Communists in relation to the various opposition parties in various countries. Precisely Russia and the United States are missing here. It was the time when Russia constituted the last great reserve of all European reaction, when the United States absorbed the surplus proletarian forces of Europe through immigration. Both countries provided Europe with raw materials and were at the same time markets for the sale of its industrial products. Both were, therefore, in one way of another, pillars of the existing European system.
"How very different today. Precisely European immigration fitted North American for a gigantic agricultural production, whose competition is shaking the very foundations of European landed property -- large and small. At the same time, it enabled the United States to exploit its tremendous industrial resources with an energy and on a scale that must shortly break the industrial monopoly of Western Europe, and especially of England, existing up to now. Both circumstances react in a revolutionary manner upon America itself. Step by step, the small and middle land ownership of the farmers, the basis of the whole political constitution, is succumbing to the competition of giant farms; at the same time, a mass industrial proletariat and a fabulous concentration of capital funds are developing for the first time in the industrial regions.
"And now Russia! During the Revolution of 1848-9, not only the European princes, but the European bourgeois as well, found their only salvation from the proletariat just beginning to awaken in Russian intervention. The Tsar was proclaimed the chief of European reaction. Today, he is a prisoner of war of the revolution in Gatchina, and Russia forms the vanguard of revolutionary action in Europe.
"The Communist Manifesto had, as its object, the proclamation of the inevitable impending dissolution of modern bourgeois property. But in Russia we find, face-to-face with the rapidly flowering capitalist swindle and bourgeois property, just beginning to develop, more than half the land owned in common by the peasants. Now the question is: can the Russian obshchina, though greatly undermined, yet a form of primeaval common ownership of land, pass directly to the higher form of Communist common ownership? Or, on the contrary, must it first pass through the same process of dissolution such as constitutes the historical evolution of the West?
"The only answer to that possible today is this: If the Russian Revolution becomes the signal for a proletarian revolution in the West, so that both complement each other, the present Russian common ownership of land may serve as the starting point for a communist development.
"January 21, 1882 London"
At about the same date, a new Polish version appeared in Geneva: _Manifest Kommunistyczny_.
Furthermore, a new Danish translation has appeared in the _Socialdemokratisk Bibliothek_, Copenhagen, 1885. Unfortunately, it is not quite complete; certain essential passages, which seem to have presented difficulties to the translator, have been omitted, and, in addition, there are saigns of carelessness here and there, which are all the more unpleasantly conspicuous since the translation indicates that had the translator taken a little more pains, he would have done an excellent piece of work.
A new French version appeared in 1886, in _Le Socialiste_ of Paris; it is the best published to date.
From this latter, a Spanish version was published the same year in _El Socialista_ of Madrid, and then reissued in pamphlet form: _Manifesto del Partido Communista_ por Carlos Marx y F. Engels, Madrid, Administracion de El Socialista, Hernan Cortes 8.
As a matter of curiosity, I may mention that in 1887 the manuscript of an Armenian translation was offered to a publisher in Constantinople. But the good man did not have the courage to publish something bearing the name of Marx and suggested that the translator set down his own name as author, which the latter however declined.
After one, and then another, of the more or less inaccurate American translations had been repeatedly reprinted in England, an authentic version at last appeared in 1888. This was my friend Samuel Moore, and we went through it together once more before it went to press. It is entitled: _Manifesto of the Communist_Party_, by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Authorized English translation, edited and annotated by Frederick Engels, 1888, London, William Reeves, 185 Fleet Street, EC I have added some of the notes of that edition to the present one.
The Manifesto has had a history of its own. Greeted with enthusiasm, at the time of its appearance, by the not at all numerous vanguard of scientific socialism (as is proved by the translations mentioned in the first place), it was soon forced into the background by the reaction that began with the defeat of the Paris workers in June 1848, and was finally excommunicated "by law" in the conviction of the Cologne Communists in November 1852. With the disappearance from the public scene of the workers' movement that had begun with the February Revolution, the Manifesto too passed into the background.
When the European workers had again gathered sufficient strength for a new onslaught upon the power of the ruling classes, the International Working Men's Association came into being. Its aim was to weld together into _one_ huge army the whole militant working class of Europe and America. Therefore it could not _set out_ from the principles laid down in the Manifesto. It was bound to have a programme which would not shut the door on the English trade unions, the French, Belgian, Italian, and Spanish Proudhonists, and the German Lassalleans. This programme -- the considerations underlying the Statutes of the International -- was drawn up by Marx with a master hand acknowledged even by the Bakunin and the anarchists. For the ultimate final triumph of the ideas set forth in the Manifesto, Marx relied solely upon the intellectual development of the working class, as it necessarily has to ensue from united action and discussion. The events and vicissitudes in the struggle against capital, the defeats even more than the successes, could not but demonstrate to the fighters the inadequacy of their former universal panaceas, and make their minds more receptive to a thorough understanding of the true conditions for working-class emancipation. And Marx was right. The working class of 1874, at the dissolution of the International, was altogether different from that of 1864, at its foundation. Proudhonism in the Latin countries, and the specific Lassalleanism in Germany, were dying out; and even the ten arch-conservative English trade unions were gradually approaching the point where, in 1887, the chairman of their Swansea Congress could say in their name: "Continental socialism has lost its terror for us." Yet by 1887 continental socialism was almost exclusively the theory heralded in the Manifesto. Thus, to a certain extent, the history of the Manifesto reflects the history of the modern working-class movement since 1848. At present, it is doubtless the most widely circulated, the most international product of all socialist literature, the common programme of many millions of workers of all countries from Siberia to California.
Nevertheless, when it appeared, we could not have called it a _socialist_ manifesto. In 1847, two kinds of people were considered socialists. On the one hand were the adherents of the various utopian systems, notably the Owenites in England and the Fourierists in France, both of whom, at that date, had already dwindled to mere sects gradually dying out. On the other, the manifold types of social quacks who wanted to eliminate social abuses through their various universal panaceas and all kinds of patch-work, without hurting capital and profit in the least. In both cases, people who stood outside the labor movement and who looked for support rather to the "educated" classes. The section of the working class, however, which demanded a radical reconstruction of society, convinced that mere political revolutions were not enough, then called itself _Communist_. It was still a rough-hewn, only instinctive and frequently somewhat crude communism. Yet, it was powerful enough to bring into being two systems of utopian communism -- in France, the "Icarian" communists of Cabet, and in Germany that of Weitling. Socialism in 1847 signified a bourgeois movement, communism a working-class movement. Socialism was, on the Continent at least, quite respectable, whereas communism was the very opposite. And since we were very decidely of the opinion as early as then that "the emancipation of the workers must be the task of the working class itself," we could have no hesitation as to which of the two names we should choose. Nor has it ever occured to us to repudiate it.
"Working men of all countries, unite!" But few voices responded when we proclaimed these words to the world 42 years ago, on the eve of the first Paris Revolution in which the proletariat came out with the demands of its own. On September 28, 1864, however, the proletarians of most of the Western European countries joined hands in the International Working Men's Association of glorious memory. True, the International itself lived only nine years. But that the eternal union of the proletarians of all countries created by it is still alive and lives stronger than ever, there is no better witness than this day. Because today, as I write these lines, the European and American proletariat is reviewing its fighting forces, mobilized for the first time, mobilized as _one_ army, under _one_ flag, for _one_ immediate aim: the standard eight-hour working day to be established by legal enactment, as proclaimed by the Geneva Congress of the International in 1866, and again by the Paris Workers' Congress of 1889. And today's spectacle will open the eyes of the capitalists and landlords of all countries to the fact that today the proletarians of all countries are united indeed.
If only Marx were still by my side to see this with his own eyes!
FREDERICK ENGELS
May 1, 1890
London Londres
NOTES ON THE MANIFESTO AND TRANSLATIONS OF IT
The Communist Manifesto was first published in February 1848 in London. It was written by Marx and Engels for the Communist League, an organisation of German emigre workers living in several western European countries. The translation above follows that of the authorised English translation by Samuel Moore of 1888. In a few places, notably the concluding line 'Proletarians of all countries, unite!', Hal Draper's 1994 translation has been followed, rather than Moore's, which reads 'Working men of all countries unite!' For an exceptionally thorough account of the background of the Manifesto , the history of different editions and translations, see Hal Draper The Adventures of the Communist Manifesto Centre for Socialist History, Berkeley 1994.